Advanced Bash-Scripting HOWTO
A guide to shell scripting, using Bash
Mendel Cooper
thegrendel@theriver.com
v0.2, 30 October 2000
This is a major update on version 0.1. -- a couple of bugs fixed, plus
much additional material and more example scripts added.
This document is both a tutorial and a reference on shell scripting
with Bash. It assumes no previous knowledge of scripting or
programming, but progresses rapidly toward an intermediate/advanced
level of instruction. The exercises and heavily-commented examples
invite active reader participation. Still, it is a work in progress.
The intention is to add much supplementary material in future updates
to this HOWTO, so that it will gradually evolve into an LDP "guide",
i.e., a complete book.
_________________________________________________________________
Table of Contents
1. [1]Why Shell Programming?
2. [2]Starting Off With a Sha-Bang
2.1. [3]Invoking the script
2.2. [4]Shell wrapper, self-executing script
3. [5]Tutorial / Reference
3.1. [6]exit and exit status
3.2. [7]Special characters used in shell scripts
3.3. [8]Introduction to Variables and Parameters
3.4. [9]Quoting
3.5. [10]Tests
3.6. [11]Operations and Related Topics
3.7. [12]Variables Revisited
3.8. [13]Loops
3.9. [14]Internal Commands and Builtins
3.10. [15]External Filters, Programs and Commands
3.11. [16]System and Administrative Commands
3.12. [17]Backticks (`...`)
3.13. [18]I/O Redirection
3.14. [19]Recess Time
3.15. [20]Regular Expressions
3.16. [21]Subshells
3.17. [22]Process Substitution
3.18. [23]Functions
3.19. [24]List Constructs
3.20. [25]Arrays
3.21. [26]Files
3.22. [27]Here Documents
3.23. [28]Of Zeros and Nulls
3.24. [29]Debugging
3.25. [30]Options
3.26. [31]Gotchas
3.27. [32]Miscellany
3.28. [33]Bash, version 2
4. [34]Credits
[35]Bibliography
A. [36]Contributed Scripts
B. [37]Copyright
List of Tables
3-1. [38]bash options
List of Examples
2-1. [39]cleanup: A script to clean up the log files in /var/log
2-2. [40]cleanup: An enhanced and generalized version of above script.
2-3. [41]shell wrapper
2-4. [42]A slightly more complex shell wrapper
3-1. [43]exit / exit status
3-2. [44]Code blocks and I/O redirection
3-3. [45]Saving the results of a code block to a file
3-4. [46]Backup of all files changed in last day
3-5. [47]Variable assignment and substitution
3-6. [48]Using param substitution and :
3-7. [49]Renaming file extensions:
3-8. [50]Using pattern matching to parse arbitrary strings
3-9. [51]What is truth?
3-10. [52]Equivalence of [ ] and test
3-11. [53]Tests, command chaining, redirection
3-12. [54]arithmetic and string comparisons
3-13. [55]zmost
3-14. [56]Compound Condition Tests Using && and ||
3-15. [57]Representation of numerical constants:
3-16. [58]Variable Assignment
3-17. [59]Variable Assignment, plain and fancy
3-18. [60]Positional Parameters
3-19. [61]wh, whois domain name lookup
3-20. [62]Using shift
3-21. [63]Using declare to type variables
3-22. [64]Indirect References
3-23. [65]Generating random numbers
3-24. [66]Simple for loops
3-25. [67]Missing in [list] in a for loop
3-26. [68]Using efax in batch mode
3-27. [69]Simple while loop
3-28. [70]Another while loop
3-29. [71]until loop
3-30. [72]Effects of break and continue in a loop
3-31. [73]Using case
3-32. [74]Creating menus using case
3-33. [75]Creating menus using select
3-34. [76]Creating menus using select in a function
3-35. [77]Using getopts to read the flags/options passed to a script
3-36. [78]Using set with positional parameters
3-37. [79]basename and dirname
3-38. [80]Variable assignment, using read
3-39. [81]Changing the current working directory
3-40. [82]"Including" a data file
3-41. [83]Waiting for a process to finish before proceeding
3-42. [84]Using ls to create a table of contents for burning a CDR
disk
3-43. [85]Badname, eliminate file names in current directory
containing bad characters and white space.
3-44. [86]Log file using xargs to monitor system log
3-45. [87]copydir, copying files in current directory to another,
using xargs
3-46. [88]Showing the effect of eval
3-47. [89]Forcing a log-off
3-48. [90]Using expr
3-49. [91]Letting let do some arithmetic.
3-50. [92]printf in action
3-51. [93]Using cpio to move a directory tree
3-52. [94]toupper: Transforms a file to all uppercase.
3-53. [95]lowercase: Changes all filenames in working directory to
lowercase.
3-54. [96]nl: A self-numbering script.
3-55. [97]Formatted file listing.
3-56. [98]Using date
3-57. [99]uuencoding encoded files
3-58. [100]Using seq to generate loop arguments
3-59. [101]Effects of exec
3-60. [102]killall, from /etc/rc.d/init.d
3-61. [103]Perl embedded in a bash script
3-62. [104]Variable scope in a subshell
3-63. [105]Running parallel processes in subshells
3-64. [106]Simple function
3-65. [107]Function Taking Parameters
3-66. [108]Converting numbers to Roman numerals
3-67. [109]Local variable visibility
3-68. [110]Recursion, using a local variable
3-69. [111]Using an "and list" to test for command-line arguments
3-70. [112]Using "or lists" in combination with an "and list"
3-71. [113]Simple array usage
3-72. [114]Some special properties of arrays
3-73. [115]An old friend: The Bubble Sort
3-74. [116]Complex array application: Sieve of Erastosthenes
3-75. [117]dummyfile: Creates a 2-line dummy file
3-76. [118]broadcast: Sends message to everyone logged in
3-77. [119]Multi-line message using cat
3-78. [120]upload: Uploads a file pair to "Sunsite" incoming directory
3-79. [121]Setting up a swapfile using /dev/zero
3-80. [122]test23, a buggy script
3-81. [123]test24, another buggy script
3-82. [124]Trapping at exit
3-83. [125]Cleaning up after Control-C
3-84. [126]String expansion
3-85. [127]Indirect variable references - the new way
3-86. [128]Using arrays and other miscellaneous trickery to deal four
random hands from a deck of cards
A-1. [129]manview: A script for viewing formatted man pages
A-2. [130]manview: A script for uploading to an ftp site, using a
locally encrypted password
A-3. [131]behead: A script for removing mail and news message headers
A-4. [132]ftpget: A script for downloading files via ftp
_________________________________________________________________
Chapter 1. Why Shell Programming?
The shell is a command interpreter. It is the insulating layer between
the operating system kernel and the user. Yet, it is also a fairly
powerful programming language. A shell program, called a script , is
an easy-to-use tool for building applications by "gluing" together
system calls, tools, utilities, and compiled binaries. Virtually the
entire repertoire of UNIX commands, utilities, and tools is available
for invocation by a shell script. If that were not enough, internal
shell commands, such as testing and loop constructs, give additional
power and flexibility to scripts. Shell scripts lend themselves
exceptionally well to to administrative system tasks and other routine
repetitive jobs not requiring the bells and whistles of a full-blown
tightly structured programming language.
A working knowledge of shell scripting is essential to everyone
wishing to become reasonably adept at system administration, even if
they do not anticipate ever having to actually write a script.
Consider that as a Linux machine boots up, it executes the shell
scripts in /etc/rc.d to restore the system configuration and set up
services. A detailed understanding of these scripts is important for
analyzing the behavior of a system, and possibly modifying it.
Writing shell scripts is not hard to learn, since the scripts can be
built in bite-sized sections and there is only a fairly small set of
shell-specific operators and options to learn. The syntax is simple
and straightforward, similar to that of invoking and chaining together
utilities at the command line, and there are only a few "rules" to
learn. Most short scripts work right the first time, and debugging
even the longer ones is straightforward.
A shell script is a "quick and dirty" method of prototyping a complex
application. Getting even a limited subset of the functionality to
work in a shell script, even if slowly, is often a useful first stage
in project development. This way, the structure of the application can
be tested and played with, and the major pitfalls found before
proceeding to the final coding in C, C++, Java, or Perl.
Shell scripting hearkens back to the classical UNIX philosophy of
breaking complex projects into simpler subtasks, of chaining together
components and utilities. Many consider this a better, or at least
more esthetically pleasing approach to problem solving than using one
of the new generation of high powered all-in-one languages, such as
Perl, which attempt to be all things to all people, but at the cost of
forcing you to alter your thinking processes to fit the tool.
When not to use shell scripts
* resource-intensive tasks, especially where speed is a factor
* complex applications, where structured programming is a necessity
* file handling (Bash is limited to serial file access, and that
only in a particularly clumsy and inefficient line-by-line
fashion)
* need to generate or manipulate graphics or GUIs
* need direct access to system hardware
* need port or socket I/O
* need to use libraries or interface with legacy code
If any of the above applies, consider a more powerful scripting
language, perhaps Perl, Tcl, Python, or even a high-level compiled
language such as C, C++, or Java. Even then, prototyping the
application as a shell script might still be a useful development
step.
We will be using Bash, an acronym for "Born-Again Shell" and a pun on
Stephen Bourne's now classic Bourne Shell. Bash has become the de
facto standard for shell scripting on all flavors of UNIX. Most of the
principles dealt with in this document apply equally well to scripting
with other shells, such as the Korn Shell, from which Bash derives
some of its features, and the C Shell and its variants. (Note that C
Shell programming is not recommended due to certain inherent problems,
as pointed out in a [133]news group posting by Tom Christiansen in
October of 1993).
The following is a tutorial in shell scripting. It relies heavily on
examples to illustrate features of the shell. As far as possible, the
example scripts have been tested, and some of them may actually be
useful in real life. The reader should cut out and save the examples,
assign them appropriate names, give them execute permission (chmod u+x
scriptname), then run them to see what happens. Note that some of the
scripts below introduce features before they are explained, and this
may require the reader to temporarily skip ahead for enlightenment.
Unless otherwise noted, the author of this document wrote the example
scripts that follow.
_________________________________________________________________
Chapter 2. Starting Off With a Sha-Bang
In the simplest case, a script is nothing more than a list of system
commands stored in a file. At the very least, this saves the effort of
retyping that particular sequence of commands each time it is invoked.
Example 2-1. cleanup: A script to clean up the log files in /var/log
# cleanup
# Run as root, of course.
cd /var/log
cat /dev/null > messages
cat /dev/null > wtmp
echo "Logs cleaned up."
There is nothing unusual here, just a set of commands that could just
as easily be invoked one by one from the command line on the console
or in an xterm. The advantages of placing the commands in a script go
beyond not having to retype them time and again. The script can easily
be modified, customized, or generalized for a particular application.
Example 2-2. cleanup: An enhanced and generalized version of above
script.
#!/bin/bash
# cleanup, version 2
# Run as root, of course.
if [ -n $1 ]
# Test if command line argument present.
then
lines=$1
else
lines=50
# default, if not specified on command line.
fi
cd /var/log
tail -$lines messages > mesg.temp
# Saves last section of message log file.
mv mesg.temp messages
# cat /dev/null > messages
# No longer needed, as the above method is safer.
cat /dev/null > wtmp
echo "Logs cleaned up."
exit 0
# A zero return value from the script upon exit
# indicates success to the shell.
Since you may not wish to wipe out the entire system log, this variant
of the first script keeps the last section of the message log intact.
You will constantly discover ways of refining previously written
scripts for increased effectiveness.
The sha-bang ( #!) at the head of a script tells your system that this
file is a set of commands to be fed to the command interpreter
indicated. The #! is actually a two byte " magic number", a special
marker that designates an executable shell script (man magic gives
more info on this fascinating topic). Immediately following the
sha-bang is a path name. This is the path to the program that
interprets the commands in the script, whether it be a shell, a
programming language, or a utility. This enables the specific commands
and directives embedded in the shell or program called.
#!/bin/sh
#!/bin/bash #!/bin/awk #!/usr/bin/perl #!/bin/sed
#!/usr/bin/tcl
Each of the above script header lines calls a different command
interpreter, be it /bin/sh, the default shell (bash in a Linux system)
or otherwise. Using #!/bin/sh, the default Bourne Shell in most
commercial variants of UNIX, makes the script portable to non-Linux
machines, though you may have to sacrifice a few bash-specific
features (the script will conform to the POSIX sh standard).
Note that the path given at the "sha-bang" must be correct, otherwise
an error message, usually Command not found will be the only result of
running the script.
#! can be omitted if the script consists only of a set of generic
system commands, using no internal shell directives. Example 2, above,
requires the initial #!, since the variable assignment line, lines=50,
uses a shell-specific construct. Note that #!/bin/sh invokes the
default shell interpreter, which defaults to /bin/bash on a Linux
machine.
_________________________________________________________________
2.1. Invoking the script
Having written the script, you can invoke it by sh scriptname, or
alternately bash scriptname. (Not recommended is using sh <scriptname,
since this effectively disables reading from input within the script.)
Much more convenient is to make the script itself directly executable
by
Either:
chmod 755 scriptname (gives everyone execute permission)
or
chmod +x scriptname (gives everyone execute permission)
chmod u+x scriptname (gives only the script owner execute
permission)
In this case, you could try calling the script by ./scriptname.
As a final step, after testing and debugging, you would likely want to
move it to /usr/local/bin (as root, of course), to make the script
available to yourself and all other users as a system-wide executable.
The script could then be invoked by simply typing scriptname [return]
from the command line.
_________________________________________________________________
2.2. Shell wrapper, self-executing script
A sed or awk script would normally be invoked from the command line by
a sed -e 'commands' or awk -e 'commands'. Embedding such a script in a
bash script permits calling it more simply, and makes it "reusable".
This also permits combining the functionality of sed and awk, for
example piping the output of a set of sed commands to awk. As a saved
executable file, you can then repeatedly invoke it in its original
form or modified, without retyping it on the command line.
Example 2-3. shell wrapper
#!/bin/bash
# This is a simple script
# that removes blank lines
# from a file.
# No argument checking.
# Same as
# sed -e '/^$/d $1' filename
# invoked from the command line.
sed -e /^$/d $1
# '^' is beginning of line,
# '$' is end,
# and 'd' is delete.
Example 2-4. A slightly more complex shell wrapper
#!/bin/bash
# "subst", a script that substitutes one pattern for
# another in a file,
# i.e., "subst Smith Jones letter.txt".
if [ $# -ne 3 ]
# Test number of arguments to script
# (always a good idea).
then
echo "Usage: `basename $0` old-pattern new-pattern filename"
exit 1
fi
old_pattern=$1
new_pattern=$2
if [ -f $3 ]
then
file_name=$3
else
echo "File \"$3\" does not exist."
exit 2
fi
# Here is where the heavy work gets done.
sed -e "s/$old_pattern/$new_pattern/" $file_name
# 's' is, of course, the substitute command in sed,
# and /pattern/ invokes address matching.
# Read the literature on 'sed' for a more
# in-depth explanation.
exit 0
# Successful invocation of the script returns 0.
Exercise. Write a shell script that performs a simple task.
_________________________________________________________________
Chapter 3. Tutorial / Reference
...there are dark corners in the Bourne shell, and people use all of
them.
--Chet Ramey
_________________________________________________________________
3.1. exit and exit status
The exit command may be used to terminate a script, just as in a C
program. It can also return a value, which is available to the shell.
Every command returns an exit status (sometimes referred to as a
return status ). A successful command returns a 0, while an
unsuccessful one returns a non-zero value that usually may be
interpreted as an error code.
Likewise, functions within a script and the script itself return an
exit status. The last command executed in the function or script
determines the exit status. Within a script, an exit nn command may be
used to deliver an nn exit status to the shell (nn must be a decimal
number in the 0 - 255 range).
$? reads the exit status of script or function.
Example 3-1. exit / exit status
#!/bin/bash
echo hello
echo $?
# exit status 0 returned
# because command successful.
lskdf
# bad command
echo $?
# non-zero exit status returned.
echo
exit 143
# Will return 143 to shell.
# To verify this, type $? after script terminates.
# By convention, an 'exit 0' shows success,
# while a non-zero exit value indicates an error or anomalous condition.
# It is also appropriate for the script to use the exit status
# to communicate with other processes, as when in a pipe with other scripts.
_________________________________________________________________
3.2. Special characters used in shell scripts
#
Comments. Lines beginning with a # (with the exception of #!) are
comments.
# This line is a comment.
Comments may also occur at the end of a command.
echo "A comment will follow." # Comment here.
Comments may also follow white space at the beginning of a
line.
# A tab precedes this comment.
;
Command separator. Permits putting two or more commands on the same
line
echo hello; echo there
Note that the ; sometimes needs to be escaped (\).
.
"dot" command. Equivalent to source, explained further on
:
null command. Exit status 0, alias for true
Endless loop:
while :
do
operation-1
operation-2
...
operation-n
done
Placeholder in if/then test:
if condition
then : # Do nothing and branch ahead
else
take-some-action
fi
Provides a placeholder where a binary operation is expected,
see [134]Section 3.3.1.
: ${username=`whoami`}
# ${username=`whoami`} without the leading : gives an error
Evaluate string of variables using "parameter substitution",
see [135]Example 3-6:
: ${HOSTNAME?} ${USER?} ${MAIL?}
Prints error message if one or more of essential environmental
variables not set.
${}
Parameter substitution.
See [136]Section 3.3 for more details.
()
command group.
(a=hello; echo $a)
Note: A listing of commands within parentheses starts a subshell
(see [137]Section 3.16).
{}
block of code. This, in effect, creates an anonymous function.
The code block enclosed in braces may have I/O redirected to
and from it.
Example 3-2. Code blocks and I/O redirection
#!/bin/bash
{
read fstab
} < /etc/fstab
echo "First line in /etc/fstab is:"
echo "$fstab"
exit 0
Example 3-3. Saving the results of a code block to a file
#!/bin/bash
# rpm-check
# ---------
# Queries an rpm file for description, listing, and whether it can be installed
.
# Saves output to a file.
#
# This script illustrates using a code block.
NOARGS=1
if [ -z $1 ]
then
echo "Usage: `basename $0` rpm-file"
exit $NOARGS
fi
{
echo
echo "Archive Description:"
rpm -qpi $1 #Query description.
echo
echo "Archive Listing:"
rpm -qpl $1 #Query listing.
echo
rpm -i --test $1 #Query whether rpm file can be installed.
if [ ! $? ]
then
echo "$1 can be installed."
else
echo "$1 cannot be installed."
fi
echo
} > $1.test # Redirects output of everything in block to file.
echo "Results of rpm test in file $1.test"
# See rpm man page for explanation of options.
exit 0
/{}
file pathname. Mostly used in 'find' constructs.
> >& >> <
redirection.
scriptname >filename redirects the output of scriptname to file
filename. Overwrite filename if it already exists.
command >&2 redirects output of command to stderr.
scriptname >>filename appends the output of scriptname to file
filename. If filename does not already exist, it will be
created.
For a more detailed explanation, see [138]Section 3.13.
<<
redirection used in "here document". See [139]Section 3.22.
|
pipe. Passes the output of previous command to next one, or to shell.
This is a method of chaining commands together.
echo ls -l | sh
passes the output of "ls -l" to the shell, with the same result
as a simple "ls -l".
cat *.lst | sort | uniq
sorts the output of all the .lst files and deletes duplicate
lines.
Note: If one of the commands in the pipe aborts, this prematurely
terminates execution of the pipe. Called a broken pipe, this
condition sends a SIGPIPE signal. (See [140]Section 3.24 for more
detail on signals.)
>|
force redirection (even if noclobber environmental variable is in
effect). This will forcibly overwrite an existing file.
-
redirection from/to stdin or stdout.
(cd /source/directory && tar cf - . ) | (cd /dest/directory && tar xvfp -)
# Move entire file tree from one directory to another
# [courtesy Alan Cox, a.cox@swansea.ac.uk]
#
# More elegant than, but equivalent to:
# cd source-directory
# tar cf - . | (cd ../target-directory; tar xzf -)
bunzip2 linux-2.2.15.tar.bz2 | tar xvf -
# --uncompress tar file-- | --then pass it to "tar"--
# If "tar" has not been patched to handle "bunzip2",
# this needs to be done in two discrete steps, using a pipe.
# The purpose of the exercise is to unarchive "bzipped" kernel source.
Note that the "-" is not itself a Bash operator, but rather an
option recognized by certain UNIX utilities.
Where a filename is expected, redirects output to stdout
(mostly seen with tar cf)
Example 3-4. Backup of all files changed in last day
#!/bin/bash
# Backs up all files in current directory
# modified within last 24 hours
# in a tarred and gzipped file.
if [ $# = 0 ]
then
echo "Usage: `basename $0` filename"
exit 1
fi
tar cvf - `find . -mtime -1 -type f -print` > $1.tar
gzip $1.tar
exit 0
~
home directory. ~bozo is bozo's home directory, and ls ~bozo lists the
contents of it. ~/ is the current user's home directory, and ls ~/
lists the contents of it.
White space
functions as a separator, separating commands or variables. White
space consists of either spaces, tabs, blank lines, or any combination
thereof. In some contexts, such as variable assignment, white space is
not permitted, and results in a syntax error.
Blank lines
Blank lines have no effect on the action of a script, and are
therefore useful for visually separating functional sections of
the script.
_________________________________________________________________
3.3. Introduction to Variables and Parameters
Variables are at the heart of every programming and scripting
language. They are used for arithmetic operations and manipulation of
quantities, string parsing, and working in the abstract with symbols -
tokens that represent something else. A variable is nothing more than
a location or set of locations in computer memory that holds an item
of data.
$
variable substitution. Let us carefully distinguish between the name
of a variable and its value. If variable1 is the name of a variable,
then $variable1 is a reference to its value, the data item it
contains. The only time a variable appears "naked", without the $, is
when declared or assigned. Assignment may be with an = (as in
var1=27), in a read statement, and at the head of a loop (for var2 in
1 2 3).
Enclosing a referenced value in double quotes (" ") does not
interfere with variable substitution. This is called partial
quoting. Using single quotes (' ') causes the variable name to
be used literally, and no substitution will take place. This is
full quoting.
Note that $variable is actually a simplified alternate form of
${variable}. In contexts where the $variable syntax causes an
error, the longer form may work (see [141]Section 3.3.1 below).
Example 3-5. Variable assignment and substitution
#!/bin/bash
# Variables: assignment and substitution
a=37.5
hello=$a
# No space permitted on either side of = sign when initializing variables.
echo hello
# Not a reference.
echo $hello
echo ${hello} #Identical to above.
echo "$hello"
echo "${hello}"
echo '$hello'
# Variable referencing disabled by single quotes,
# because $ interpreted literally.
# Notice the effect of different types of quoting.
# ------------------------------------------------
echo; echo
numbers="one two three"
other_numbers="1 2 3"
# If whitespace within variables, then quotes necessary.
echo "numbers = $numbers"
echo "other_numbers = $other_numbers"
echo
echo "uninitialized variable = $uninitialized_variable"
# Uninitialized variable has null value (no value at all).
echo
exit 0
Note: An uninitialized variable has a "null" value - no assigned
value at all (not zero!). Using a variable before assigning a value
to it will inevitably cause problems.
_________________________________________________________________
3.3.1. Parameter Substitution
${parameter}
Same as $parameter, i.e., value of the variable parameter
May be used for concatenating variables with strings
your_id=${USER}-on-${HOSTNAME}
echo "$your_id"
${parameter-default}
If parameter not set, use default
echo ${username-`whoami`}
# Echoes the result of `whoami`, but variable "username" is still unset.
Note: This is almost equivalent to ${parameter:-default}. The extra
: makes a difference only when parameter has been declared, but is
null.
#!/bin/bash
username0=
echo "username0 = ${username0-`whoami`}"
# username0 has been declared, but is set to null.
# Will not echo.
echo "username1 = ${username1-`whoami`}"
# username1 has not been declared.
# Will echo.
username2=
echo "username2 = ${username2:-`whoami`}"
# username2 has been declared, but is set to null.
# Will echo because of :- rather than just - in condition test.
exit 0
${parameter=default}, ${parameter:=default}
If parameter not set, set it to default
Both forms nearly equivalent. The : makes a difference only
when parameter has been declared and is null, as above.
echo ${username=`whoami`}
# Variable "username" is now set to `whoami`.
${parameter+otherwise}, ${parameter:+otherwise}
If parameter set, use 'otherwise", else use null string
Both forms nearly equivalent. The : makes a difference only
when parameter has been declared and is null, as above.
${parameter?err_msg}, ${parameter:?err_msg}
If parameter set, use it, else print err_msg
Both forms nearly equivalent. The : makes a difference only
when parameter has been declared and is null, as above.
Example 3-6. Using param substitution and :
#!/bin/bash
# Let's check some of the system's environmental variables.
# If, for example, $USER, the name of the person
# at the console, is not set, the machine will not
# recognize you.
: ${HOSTNAME?} ${USER?} ${HOME} ${MAIL?}
echo
echo "Name of the machine is $HOSTNAME."
echo "You are $USER."
echo "Your home directory is $HOME."
echo "Your mail INBOX is located in $MAIL."
echo
echo "If you are reading this message,"
echo "critical environmental variables have been set."
echo
echo
# The ':' operator seems fairly error tolerant.
# This script works even if the '$' omitted in front of
# {HOSTNAME}, {USER?}, {HOME?}, and {MAIL?}. Why?
# ------------------------------------------------------
# The ${variablename?} construction can also check
# for variables set within the script.
ThisVariable=Value-of-ThisVariable
# Note, by the way, that string variables may be set
# to characters disallowed in their names.
: ${ThisVariable?}
echo "Value of ThisVariable is $ThisVariable".
echo
echo
# If ZZXy23AB has not been set...
: ${ZZXy23AB?}
# This will give you an error message and terminate.
echo "You will not see this message."
exit 0
Parameter substitution and/or expansion. The following expressions are
the complement to the match in expr string operations (see
[142]Example 3-48). These particular ones are used mostly in parsing
file path names.
${var#pattern}, ${var##pattern}
Strip off shortest/longest part of pattern if it matches the
front end of variable.
${var%pattern}, ${var%%pattern}
Strip off shortest/longest part of pattern if it matches the
back end of variable.
Version 2 of bash adds additional options.
Example 3-7. Renaming file extensions:
#!/bin/bash
# rfe
# ---
# Renaming file extensions.
#
# rfe old_extension new_extension
#
# Example:
# To rename all *.gif files in working directory to *.jpg,
# rfe gif jpg
if [ $# -ne 2 ]
then
echo "Usage: `basename $0` old_file_suffix new_file_suffix"
exit 1
fi
for filename in *.$1
# Traverse list of files ending with 1st argument.
do
mv $filename ${filename%$1}$2
# Strip off part of filename matching 1st argument,
# then append 2nd argument.
done
exit 0
${var:pos}
variable var expanded, starting from offset pos.
${var:pos:len}
expansion to a max of len characters of variable var, from
offset pos.
${var/patt/replacement}
first match of patt, within var replaced with replacement.
If replacement is omitted, then the first match of patt is
replaced by nothing, that is, deleted.
${var//patt/replacement}
all matches of patt, within var replaced with replacement.
Similar to above, if replacement is omitted, then all
occurrences patt are replaced by nothing, that is, deleted.
Example 3-8. Using pattern matching to parse arbitrary strings
#!/bin/bash
var1=abcd-1234-defg
echo "var1 = $var1"
t=${var1#*-*}
echo "var1 (with everything, up to and including first - stripped out) = $t"
t=${var1%*-*}
echo "var1 (with everything from the last - on stripped out) = $t"
echo
path_name=/home/bozo/ideas/thoughts.for.today
echo "path_name = $path_name"
t=${path_name##/*/}
# Same effect as t=`basename $path_name`
echo "path_name, stripped of prefixes = $t"
t=${path_name%/*.*}
# Same effect as t=`dirname $path_name`
echo "path_name, stripped of suffixes = $t"
echo
t=${path_name:11}
echo "$path_name, with first 11 chars stripped off = $t"
t=${path_name:11:5}
echo "$path_name, with first 11 chars stripped off, length 5 = $t"
echo
t=${path_name/bozo/clown}
echo "$path_name with \"bozo\" replaced by \"clown\" = $t"
t=${path_name/today/}
echo "$path_name with \"today\" deleted = $t"
t=${path_name//o/O}
echo "$path_name with all o's capitalized = $t"
t=${path_name//o/}
echo "$path_name with all o's deleted = $t"
exit 0
_________________________________________________________________
3.4. Quoting
Quoting means just that, bracketing a string in quotes. This has the
effect of protecting special characters in the string from
reinterpretation or expansion by the shell or shell script. (A
character is "special" if it has an interpretation other than its
literal meaning, such as the wild card character, *.)
When referencing a variable, it is generally advisable in enclose it
in double quotes (" "). This preserves all special characters within
the variable name, except $, ', and \. This allows referencing it,
that is, replacing the variable with its value (see [143]Example 3-5,
above). Enclosing the arguments to an echo statement in double quotes
is usually a good practice.
Single quotes (' ') operate similarly to double quotes, but do not
permit referencing variables, since the special meaning of $ is turned
off. Within single quotes, every special character except ' gets
interpreted literally. Consider single quotes ("full quoting") to be a
stricter method of quoting than double quotes ("partial quoting").
Escaping is a method of quoting single characters. The escape (\)
preceding a character will either toggle on or turn off a special
meaning for that character, depending on context.
\n
means newline
\r
means return
\t
means tab
\v
\vmeans vertical tab
\b
means backspace
\a
means "alert" (beep or flash)
\0xx
translates to the octal ASCII equivalent of 0xx
# Use the -e option with 'echo' to print these.
echo -e "\v\v\v\v" # Prints 4 vertical tabs.
echo -e "\042" # Prints " (quote).
\"
gives the quote its literal meaning
echo "Hello" # Hello
echo "\"Hello\", he said." # "Hello", he said.
\$
gives the dollar sign its literal meaning (variable name
following \$ will not be referenced)
echo "\$variable01" # results in $variable01
The escape also provides a means of writing a multi-line command.
Normally, each separate line constitutes a different command, but an
escape at the end of a line continues the command sequence onto the
next line.
(cd /source/directory && tar cf - . ) | \
(cd /dest/directory && tar xvfp -)
# Repeating Alan Cox's directory tree copy command,
# but split into two lines for increased legibility.
_________________________________________________________________
3.5. Tests
The if/then construct tests whether a condition is true, and if so,
executes one or more commands. Note that in this context, 0 (zero)
will evaluate as true, as will a random string of alphanumerics.
Puzzling out the logic of this is left as an exercise for the reader.
Example 3-9. What is truth?
#!/bin/bash
if [ 0 ]
#zero
then
echo "0 is true."
else
echo "0 is false."
fi
if [ ]
#NULL (empty condition)
then
echo "NULL is true."
else
echo "NULL is false."
fi
if [ xyz ]
#string
then
echo "Random string is true."
else
echo "Random string is false."
fi
if [ $xyz ]
#string
then
echo "Undeclared variable is true."
else
echo "Undeclared variable is false."
fi
exit 0
Exercise. Explain the behavior of [144]Example 3-9, above.
if [ condition-true ]
then
command 1
command 2
...
else
# Optional (may be left out if not needed).
# Adds default code block executing if original condition
# tests false.
command 3
command 4
...
fi
Add a semicolon when 'if' and 'then' are on same line.
if [ -x filename ]; then
elif
This is a contraction for else if. The effect is to nest an
inner if/then construction within an outer one.
if [ condition ]
then
command
command
command
elif
# Same as else if
then
command
command
else
default-command
fi
The test condition-true construct is the exact equivalent of if
[condition-true ]. The left bracket [ is, in fact, an alias for test.
(The closing right bracket ] in a test should not therefore be
strictly necessary, however newer versions of bash detect it as a
syntax error and complain.)
Example 3-10. Equivalence of [ ] and test
#!/bin/bash
echo
if test -z $1
then
echo "No command-line arguments."
else
echo "First command-line argument is $1."
fi
# Both code blocks are functionally identical.
if [ -z $1 ]
# if [ -z $1
# also works, but outputs an error message.
then
echo "No command-line arguments."
else
echo "First command-line argument is $1."
fi
echo
exit 0
_________________________________________________________________
3.5.1. File test operators
Returns true if...
-e
file exists
-f
file is a regular file
-s
file is not zero size
-d
file is a directory
-b
file is a block device (floppy, cdrom, etc.)
-c
file is a character device (keyboard, modem, sound card, etc.)
-p
file is a pipe
-L
file is a symbolic link
-S
file is a socket
-r
file is readable (has read permission)
-w
file has write permission
-x
file has execute permission
-g
group-id flag set on file
-u
user-id flag set on file
-k
"sticky bit" set (if user does not own a directory that has the
sticky bit set, she cannot delete files in it, not even files
she owns)
-O
you are owner of file
-G
group-id of file same as yours
-t n
file descriptor n is open
This usually refers to stdin, stdout, and stderr (file
descriptors 0 - 2).
f1 -nt f2
file f1 is newer than f2
f1 -ot f2
file f1 is older than f2
f1 -ef f2
files f1 and f2 are links to the same file
!
"not" -- reverses the sense of the tests above (returns true if
condition absent).
Example 3-11. Tests, command chaining, redirection
#!/bin/bash
# This line is a comment.
filename=sys.log
if [ ! -f $filename ]
then
touch $filename; echo "Creating file."
else
cat /dev/null > $filename; echo "Cleaning out file."
fi
# Of course, /var/log/messages must have
# world read permission (644) for this to work.
tail /var/log/messages > $filename
echo "$filename contains tail end of system log."
exit 0
_________________________________________________________________
3.5.2. Comparison operators (binary)
integer comparison
-eq
is equal to ($a -eq $b)
-ne
is not equal to ($a -ne $b)
-gt
is greater than ($a -gt $b)
-ge
is greater than or equal to ($a -ge $b)
-lt
is less than ($a -lt $b)
-le
is less than or equal to ($a -le $b)
string comparison
=
is equal to ($a = $b)
!=
is not equal to ($a != $b)
\<
is less than, in ASCII alphabetical order ($a \< $b)
Note that the "<" needs to be escaped.
\>
is greater than, in ASCII alphabetical order ($a \> $b)
Note that the ">" needs to be escaped.
See [145]Example 3-73 for an application of this comparison
operator.
-z
string is "null", that is, has zero length
-n
string in not "null". Note that this test does not work
reliably (a bash bug?). Use ! -z instead.
Example 3-12. arithmetic and string comparisons
#!/bin/bash
a=4
b=5
# Here a and b can be treated either as integers or strings.
# There is some blurring between the arithmetic and integer comparisons.
# Be careful.
if [ $a -ne $b ]
then
echo "$a is not equal to $b"
echo "(arithmetic comparison)"
fi
echo
if [ $a != $b ]
then
echo "$a is not equal to $b."
echo "(string comparison)"
fi
echo
exit 0
Example 3-13. zmost
#!/bin/bash
#View gzipped files with 'most'
NOARGS=1
if [ $# = 0 ]
# same effect as: if [ -z $1 ]
then
echo "Usage: `basename $0` filename" >&2
# Error message to stderr.
exit $NOARGS
# Returns 1 as exit status of script
# (error code)
fi
filename=$1
if [ ! -f $filename ]
then
echo "File $filename not found!" >&2
# Error message to stderr.
exit 2
fi
if [ ${filename##*.} != "gz" ]
# Using bracket in variable substitution.
then
echo "File $1 is not a gzipped file!"
exit 3
fi
zcat $1 | most
exit 0
# Uses the file viewer 'most'
# (similar to 'less')
compound comparison
-a
logical and
exp1 -a exp2 returns true if both exp1 and exp2 are true.
-o
logical or
exp1 -o exp2 returns true if either exp1 or exp2 are true.
These are simpler forms of the comparison operators && and ||, which
require brackets to separate the target expressions.
Refer to [146]Example 3-14 to see compound comparison operators in
action.
_________________________________________________________________
3.6. Operations and Related Topics
3.6.1. Operations
=
All-purpose assignment operator, which works for both
arithmetic and string assignments.
var=27
category=minerals
May also be used in a string comparison test.
if [ $string1 = $string2 ]
then
command
fi
The following are normally used in combination with expr or let.
arithmetic operators
+
plus
-
minus
*
multiplication
/
division
%
modulo, or mod (returns the remainder of an integer division)
+=
"plus-equal" (increment variable by a constant)
`expr $var+=5` results in var being incremented by 5.
-=
"minus-equal" (decrement variable by a constant)
*=
"times-equal" (multiply variable by a constant)
`expr $var*=4` results in var being multiplied by 4.
/=
"slash-equal" (divide variable by a constant)
%=
"mod-equal" (remainder of dividing variable by a constant)
The bitwise logical operators seldom make an appearance in shell
scripts. Their chief use seems to be manipulating and testing values
read from ports or sockets. "Bit flipping" is more relevant to
compiled languages, such as C and C++, which run fast enough to permit
its use on the fly.
<<
bitwise left shift (multiplies by 2 for each shift position)
<<=
"left-shift-equal"
let "var <<= 2" results in var left-shifted 2 bits (multiplied
by 4)
>>
bitwise right shift (divides by 2 for each shift position)
>>=
"right-shift-equal" (inverse of <<=)
&
bitwise and
&=
"bitwise and-equal"
|
bitwise OR
|=
"bitwise OR-equal"
~
bitwise negate
!
bitwise NOT
^
bitwise XOR
^=
"bitwise XOR-equal"
relational tests
<
less than
>
greater than
<=
less than or equal to
>=
greater than or equal to
==
equal to (test)
!=
not equal to
&&
and (logical)
if [ $condition1 ] && [ $condition2 ]
# if both condition1 and condition2 hold true...
||
or (logical)
if [ $condition1 ] || [ $condition2 ]
# if both condition1 or condition2 hold true...
Example 3-14. Compound Condition Tests Using && and ||
#!/bin/bash
a=24
b=47
if [ $a -eq 24 ] && [ $b -eq 47 ]
then
echo "Test #1 succeeds."
else
echo "Test #1 fails."
fi
# ERROR:
# if [ $a -eq 24 && $b -eq 47 ]
if [ $a -eq 98 ] || [ $b -eq 47 ]
then
echo "Test #2 succeeds."
else
echo "Test #2 fails."
fi
# The -a and -o options provide
# an alternative compound condition test.
# Thanks to Patrick Callahan for pointing this out.
if [ $a -eq 24 -a $b -eq 47 ]
then
echo "Test #3 succeeds."
else
echo "Test #3 fails."
fi
if [ $a -eq 98 -o $b -eq 47 ]
then
echo "Test #4 succeeds."
else
echo "Test #4 fails."
fi
a=rhino
b=crocodile
if [ $a = rhino ] && [ $b = crocodile ]
then
echo "Test #5 succeeds."
else
echo "Test #5 fails."
fi
exit 0
_________________________________________________________________
3.6.2. Numerical Constants
A shell script interprets a number as decimal (base 10), unless that
number has a special prefix or notation. A number preceded by a 0 is
octal (base 8). A number preceded by 0x is hexadecimal (base 16). A
number with an embedded # is evaluated as BASE#NUMBER (this option is
of limited usefulness because of range restrictions).
Example 3-15. Representation of numerical constants:
#!/bin/bash
# Representation of numbers.
# Decimal
let "d = 32"
echo "d = $d"
# Nothing out of the ordinary here.
# Octal: numbers preceded by '0'
let "o = 071"
echo "o = $o"
# Expresses result in decimal.
# Hexadecimal: numbers preceded by '0x' or '0X'
let "h = 0x7a"
echo "h = $h"
# Other bases: BASE#NUMBER
# BASE between 2 and 64.
let "b = 32#77"
echo "b = $b"
# This notation only works for a very limited range of numbers.
let "c = 2#47" # Error: out of range.
echo "c = $c"
exit 0
_________________________________________________________________
3.7. Variables Revisited
Used properly, variables can add power and flexibility to scripts.
This requires learning their subtleties and nuances.
Internal (builtin) variables
environmental variables affecting bash script behavior
$IFS
input field separator
This defaults to white space, but may be changed, for example,
to parse a comma-separated data file.
$HOME
home directory of the user (usually /home/username)
$PATH
path to binaries (usually /usr/bin/, /usr/X11R6/bin/,
/usr/local/bin, etc.)
Note that the "working directory", ./, is usually omitted from
the $PATH as a security measure.
$PS1
This is the main prompt, seen at the command line.
$PS2
The secondary prompt, seen when additional input is expected.
It is represented as an ">".
$PWD
working directory (directory you are in at the time)
$EDITOR
the default editor invoked by a script, usually vi or emacs.
$TMOUT
If the TMOUT environmental variable is set to a non-zero value
time, then the shell prompt will time out after time seconds.
This will cause a logout.
Note: Unfortunately, this works only while waiting for input at the
shell prompt console or in an xterm. While it would be nice to
speculate on the uses of this internal variable for timed input,
for example in combination with read, TMOUT does not work in that
context and is virtually useless for shell scripting.
Implementing timed input in a script is certainly possible, but
hardly seems worth the effort. It requires setting up a timing
loop to signal the script when it times out. Additionally, a
signal handling routine is necessary to trap (see [147]Example
3-82) the interrupt generated by the timing loop (whew!).
#!/bin/bash
# TMOUT=3 useless in a script
TIMELIMIT=3 # Three seconds in this instance, may be set to different value.
PrintAnswer()
{
if [ $answer = TIMEOUT ]
then
echo $answer
else # Don't want to mix up the two instances.
echo "Your favorite veggie is $answer"
kill $! # Kills no longer needed TimerOn function running in background.
# $! is PID of last job running in background.
fi
}
TimerOn()
{
sleep $TIMELIMIT && kill -s 14 $$ &
# Waits XXX seconds, then sends sigalarm to script.
}
Int14Vector()
{
answer="TIMEOUT"
PrintAnswer
exit 14
}
trap Int14Vector 14
# Timer interrupt - 14 - subverted for our purposes.
echo "What is your favorite vegetable "
TimerOn
read answer
PrintAnswer
# Admittedly, this is a kludgy implementation of timed input,
# but pretty much as good as can be done with Bash.
# (Challenge to reader: come up with something better.)
# If you need something a bit more elegant...
# consider writing the application in C or C++,
# using appropriate library functions, such as 'alarm' and 'setitimer'.
exit 0
$SECONDS
The number of seconds the script has been running.
#!/bin/bash
ENDLESS_LOOP=1
echo
echo "Hit Control-C to exit this script."
echo
while [ $ENDLESS_LOOP ]
do
if [ $SECONDS -eq 1 ]
then
units=second
else
units=seconds
fi
echo "This script has been running $SECONDS $units."
sleep 1
done
exit 0
$REPLY
The default value when a variable is not supplied to read. Also
applicable to select menus, but only supplies the item number
of the variable chosen, not the value of the variable itself.
#!/bin/bash
echo
echo -n "What is your favorite vegetable? "
read
echo "Your favorite vegetable is $REPLY."
# REPLY holds the value of last "read" if and only if no variable supplied.
echo
echo -n "What is your favorite fruit? "
read fruit
echo "Your favorite fruit is $fruit."
echo "but..."
echo "Value of \$REPLY is still $REPLY."
# $REPLY is still set to its previous value because
# the variable $fruit absorbed the new "read" value.
echo
exit 0
$BASH
the path to the bash binary itself, usually /bin/bash
$BASH_ENV
an environmental variable pointing to a bash startup file to be
read when a script is invoked
$0, $1, $2, etc.
positional parameters (passed from command line to script,
passed to a function, or set to a variable)
$#
number of command line arguments or positional parameters
$$
process id of script, often used in scripts to construct temp
file names
$?
exit status of command, function, or the script itself
$*
All of the positional parameters
$@
Same as $*, but each parameter is a quoted string, that is, the
parameters are passed on intact, without interpretation or
expansion
$-
Flags passed to script
$!
PID of last job run in background
variable assignment
Initializing or changing the value of a variable
=
the assignment operator (no space before & after)
Do not confuse this with = and -eq, which test, rather than
assign!
Note: = can be either an assignment or a test operator, depending
on context.
Example 3-16. Variable Assignment
#!/bin/bash
echo
# When is a variable "naked", i.e., lacking the '$' in front?
# Assignment
a=879
echo "The value of \"a\" is $a"
# Assignment using 'let'
let a=16+5
echo "The value of \"a\" is now $a"
echo
# In a 'for' loop (really, a type of disguised assignment)
echo -n "The values of \"a\" in the loop are "
for a in 7 8 9 11
do
echo -n "$a "
done
echo
echo
# In a 'read' statement
echo -n "Enter \"a\" "
read a
echo "The value of \"a\" is now $a"
echo
exit 0
Example 3-17. Variable Assignment, plain and fancy
#!/bin/bash
a=23
# Simple case
echo $a
b=$a
echo $b
# Now, getting a little bit fancier...
a=`echo Hello!`
# Assigns result of 'echo' command to 'a'
echo $a
a=`ls -l`
# Assigns result of 'ls -l' command to 'a'
echo $a
exit 0
Variable assignment using the $() mechanism (a newer method
than back quotes)
# From /etc/rc.d/rc.local
R=$(cat /etc/redhat-release)
arch=$(uname -m)
local variables
variables visible only within a code block or function (see
[148]Section 3.18)
environmental variables
variables that affect the behavior of the shell and user
interface, such as the path and the prompt
If a script sets environmental variables, they need to be
"exported", that is, reported to the environment local to the
script. This is the function of the export command.
Note: A script can export variables only to child processes, that
is, only to commands or processes which that particular script
initiates. A script invoked from the command line cannot export
variables back to the command line environment. Child processes
cannot export variables back to the parent processes that spawned
them.
---
positional parameters
arguments passed to the script from the command line - $0, $1,
$2, $3... ($0 is the name of the script itself, $1 is the first
argument, etc.)
Example 3-18. Positional Parameters
#!/bin/bash
echo
echo The name of this script is $0
# Adds ./ for current directory
echo The name of this script is `basename $0`
# Strip out path name info (see 'basename')
echo
if [ $1 ]
then
echo "Parameter #1 is $1"
# Need quotes to escape #
fi
if [ $2 ]
then
echo "Parameter #2 is $2"
fi
if [ $3 ]
then
echo "Parameter #3 is $3"
fi
echo
exit 0
Some scripts can perform different operations, depending on
which name they are invoked with. For this to work, the script
needs to check $0, the name it was invoked by. There also have
to be symbolic links present to all the alternate names of the
same script.
Note: If a script expects a command line parameter but is invoked
without one, this may cause a null variable assignment, certainly
an undesirable result. One way to prevent this is to append an
extra character to both sides of the assignment statement using the
expected positional parameter.
variable1x=$1x
# This will prevent an error, even if positional parameter is absent.
# The extra character can be stripped off later, if desired, like so.
variable1=${variable1x/x/}
# This uses one of the parameter substitution templates previously discussed.
# Leaving out the replacement pattern results in a deletion.
---
Example 3-19. wh, whois domain name lookup
#!/bin/bash
# Does a 'whois domain-name' lookup
# on any of 3 alternate servers:
# ripe.net, cw.net, radb.net
# Place this script, named 'wh' in /usr/local/bin
# Requires symbolic links:
# ln -s /usr/local/bin/wh /usr/local/bin/wh-ripe
# ln -s /usr/local/bin/wh /usr/local/bin/wh-cw
# ln -s /usr/local/bin/wh /usr/local/bin/wh-radb
if [ -z $1 ]
then
echo "Usage: `basename $0` [domain-name]"
exit 1
fi
case `basename $0` in
# Checks script name and calls proper server
"wh" ) whois $1@whois.ripe.net;;
"wh-ripe") whois $1@whois.ripe.net;;
"wh-radb") whois $1@whois.radb.net;;
"wh-cw" ) whois $1@whois.cw.net;;
* ) echo "Usage: `basename $0` [domain-name]";;
esac
exit 0
---
The shift command reassigns the positional parameters, in
effect shifting them to the left one notch.
$1 <--- $2, $2 <--- $3, $3 <--- $4, etc.
The old $1 disappears, but $0 does not change. If you use a
large number of positional parameters to a script, shift lets
you access those past 10.
Example 3-20. Using shift
#!/bin/bash
# Name this script something like shift000,
# and invoke it with some parameters, for example
# ./shift000 a b c def 23 skidoo
# Demo of using 'shift'
# to step through all the positional parameters.
until [ -z "$1" ]
do
echo -n "$1 "
shift
done
echo
# Extra line feed.
exit 0
_________________________________________________________________
3.7.1. Typing variables: declare or typeset
The declare or typeset keywords (they are exact synonyms) permit
restricting the properties of variables. This is a very weak form of
the typing available in certain programming languages. The declare
command is not available in version 1 of bash.
-r readonly
declare -r var1
(declare -r var1 works the same as readonly var1)
This is the rough equivalent of the C const type qualifier. An
attempt to change the value of a readonly variable fails with
an error message.
-i integer
declare -i var2
The script treats subsequent occurrences of var2 as an integer.
Note that certain arithmetic operations are permitted for
declared integer variables without the need for expr or let.
-a array
declare -a indices
The variable indices will be treated as an array.
-f functions
declare -f # (no arguments)
A declare -f line within a script causes a listing of all the
functions contained in that script.
-x export
declare -x var3
This declares a variable as available for exporting outside the
environment of the script itself.
Example 3-21. Using declare to type variables
#!/bin/bash
declare -f
# Lists the function below.
func1 ()
{
echo This is a function.
}
declare -r var1=13.36
echo "var1 declared as $var1"
# Attempt to change readonly variable.
var1=13.37
# Generates error message.
echo "var1 is still $var1"
echo
declare -i var2
var2=2367
echo "var2 declared as $var2"
var2=var2+1
# Integer declaration eliminates the need for 'let'.
echo "var2 incremented by 1 is $var2."
# Attempt to change variable declared as integer
echo "Attempting to change var2 to floating point value, 2367.1."
var2=2367.1
# results in error message, with no change to variable.
echo "var2 is still $var2"
exit 0
_________________________________________________________________
3.7.2. Indirect References to Variables
Assume that the value of a variable is the name of a second variable.
Is it somehow possible to retrieve the value of this second variable
from the first one? For example, if a=letter_of_alphabet and
letter_of_alphabet=z, can a reference to a return z? This can indeed
be done, and it is called an indirect reference. It uses the unusual
eval var1=\$$var2 notation.
Example 3-22. Indirect References
#!/bin/bash
# Indirect variable referencing.
a=letter_of_alphabet
letter_of_alphabet=z
# Direct reference.
echo "a = $a"
# Indirect reference.
eval a=\$$a
echo "Now a = $a"
echo
# Now, let's try changing the second order reference.
t=table_cell_3
table_cell_3=24
eval t=\$$t
echo "t = $t"
# So far, so good.
table_cell_3=387
eval t=\$$t
echo "Value of t changed to $t"
# ERROR!
# Cannot indirectly reference changed value of variable this way.
# For this to work, must use ${!t} notation.
exit 0
Note: This method of indirect referencing has its limitations. If
the second order variable changes its value, an indirect reference
to the first order variable produces an error. Fortunately, this
flaw has been fixed in the newer ${!variable} notation introduced
with version 2 of Bash (see [149]Example 3-85).
_________________________________________________________________
3.7.3. $RANDOM: generate random integer
Note: $RANDOM is an internal Bash function (not a constant) that
returns a pseudorandom integer in the range 0 - 32767. $RANDOM
should not be used to generate an encryption key.
Example 3-23. Generating random numbers
#!/bin/bash
# $RANDOM returns a different random integer at each invocation.
# Nominal range: 0 - 32767 (signed integer).
MAXCOUNT=10
count=1
echo
echo "$MAXCOUNT random numbers:"
echo "-----------------"
while [ $count -le $MAXCOUNT ] # Generate 10 ($MAXCOUNT) random integers.
do
number=$RANDOM
echo $number
let "count += 1" # Increment count.
done
echo "-----------------"
# If you need a random int within a certain range, then use the 'modulo' operat
or.
RANGE=500
echo
number=$RANDOM
let "number %= $RANGE"
echo "Random number less than $RANGE --> $number"
echo
# If you need a random int greater than a lower bound,
# then set up a test to discard all numbers below that.
FLOOR=200
number=0 #initialize
while [ $number -le $FLOOR ]
do
number=$RANDOM
done
echo "Random number greater than $FLOOR --> $number"
echo
# May combine above two techniques to retrieve random number between two limits
.
number=0 #initialize
while [ $number -le $FLOOR ]
do
number=$RANDOM
let "number %= $RANGE"
done
echo "Random number between $FLOOR and $RANGE --> $number"
echo
# May generate binary choice, that is, "true" or "false" value.
BINARY=2
number=$RANDOM
let "number %= $BINARY"
if [ $number -eq 1 ]
then
echo "TRUE"
else
echo "FALSE"
fi
echo
# May generate toss of the dice.
SPOTS=7
DICE=2
die1=0
die2=0
# Tosses each die separately, and so gives correct odds.
while [ $die1 -eq 0 ] #Can't have a zero come up.
do
let "die1 = $RANDOM % $SPOTS"
done
while [ $die2 -eq 0 ]
do
let "die2 = $RANDOM % $SPOTS"
done
let "throw = $die1 + $die2"
echo "Throw of the dice = $throw"
echo
exit 0
_________________________________________________________________
3.8. Loops
for (in)
This is the basic looping construct. It differs significantly
from its C counterpart.
for [arg] in [list]
do
command...
done
Note that list may contain wild cards.
Note further that if do is on same line as for, there needs to
be a semicolon before list.
for [arg] in [list] ; do
Example 3-24. Simple for loops
#!/bin/bash
for planet in Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto
do
echo $planet
done
echo
# Entire 'list' enclosed in quotes creates a single variable.
for planet in "Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto"
do
echo $planet
done
exit 0
Omitting the in [list] part of a for loop causes the loop to
operate on $#, the list of arguments given on the command line
to the script.
Example 3-25. Missing in [list] in a for loop
#!/bin/bash
# Invoke both with and without arguments,
# and see what happens.
for a
do
echo $a
done
# 'in list' missing, therefore
# operates on '$#'
# (command-line argument list)
exit 0
Example 3-26. Using efax in batch mode
#!/bin/bash
if [ $# -ne 2 ]
# Check for proper no. of command line args.
then
echo "Usage: `basename $0` phone# text-file"
exit 1
fi
if [ ! -f $2 ]
then
echo "File $2 is not a text file"
exit 2
fi
# Create fax formatted files from text files.
fax make $2
for file in $(ls $2.0*)
# Concatenate the converted files.
# Uses wild card in variable list.
do
fil="$fil $file"
done
# Do the work.
efax -d /dev/ttyS3 -o1 -t "T$1" $fil
exit 0
while
This construct tests for a condition at the top of a loop, and
keeps looping as long as that condition is true.
while [condition]
do
command...
done
As is the case with for/in loops, placing the do on the same
line as the condition test requires a semicolon.
while [condition] ; do
Note that certain specialized while loops, as, for example, a
getopts construct, deviate somewhat from the standard template
given here.
Example 3-27. Simple while loop
#!/bin/bash
var0=0
while [ "$var0" -lt 10 ]
do
echo -n "$var0 "
# -n suppresses newline.
var0=`expr $var0 + 1`
# var0=$(($var0+1)) also works.
done
echo
exit 0
Example 3-28. Another while loop
#!/bin/bash
while [ "$var1" != end ]
do
echo "Input variable #1 "
echo "(end to exit)"
read var1
# It's not 'read $var1'
# because value of var1 is set.
echo "variable #1 = $var1"
# Need quotes because of #
done
# Note: Echoes 'end' because
# termination condition
# tested for at top of loop.
exit 0
until
This construct tests for a condition at the top of a loop, and
keeps looping as long as that condition is false (opposite of
while loop).
until [condition-is-true]
do
command...
done
Note that an until loop tests for the terminating condition at
the top of the loop, differing from a similar construct in some
programming languages.
As is the case with for/in loops, placing the do on the same
line as the condition test requires a semicolon.
until [condition-is-true] ; do
Example 3-29. until loop
#!/bin/bash
until [ "$var1" = end ]
# Tests condition at top of loop.
do
echo "Input variable #1 "
echo "(end to exit)"
read var1
echo "variable #1 = $var1"
done
exit 0
break, continue
The break and continue loop control commands correspond exactly
to their counterparts in other programming languages. The break
command terminates the loop (breaks out of it), while continue
causes a jump to the next iteration of the loop, skipping all
the remaining commands in that particular loop cycle.
Example 3-30. Effects of break and continue in a loop
#!/bin/bash
echo
echo Printing Numbers 1 through 20.
a=0
while [ $a -le 19 ]
do
a=$(($a+1))
if [ $a -eq 3 ] || [ $a -eq 11 ]
# Excludes 3 and 11
then
continue
# Skip rest of this particular loop iteration.
fi
echo -n "$a "
done
# Exercise for reader:
# Why does loop print up to 20?
echo
echo
echo Printing Numbers 1 through 20, but something happens after 2.
##################################################################
# Same loop, but substituting 'break' for 'continue'.
a=0
while [ $a -le 19 ]
do
a=$(($a+1))
if [ $a -gt 2 ]
then
break
# Skip entire rest of loop.
fi
echo -n "$a "
done
echo
echo
exit 0
case (in) / esac
The case construct is the shell equivalent of switch in C/C++.
It permits branching to one of a number of code blocks,
depending on condition tests. It serves as a kind of shorthand
for multiple if/then/else statements and is an appropriate tool
for creating menus.
case "$variable" in
"$condition1" )
command...
;;
"$condition2" )
command...
;;
esac
Note:
+ Quoting the variables is recommended.
+ Each test line ends with a left paren ).
+ Each condition block ends with a double semicolon ;;.
+ The entire case block terminates with an esac (case spelled
backwards).
Example 3-31. Using case
#!/bin/bash
echo
echo "Hit a key, then hit return."
read Keypress
case "$Keypress" in
[a-z] ) echo "Lowercase letter";;
[A-Z] ) echo "Uppercase letter";;
[0-9] ) echo "Digit";;
* ) echo "Punctuation, whitespace, or other";;
esac
# Allows ranges of characters in [square brackets].
exit 0
Example 3-32. Creating menus using case
#!/bin/bash
# Crude rolodex-type database
clear
# Clear the screen.
echo " Contact List"
echo " ------- ----"
echo "Choose one of the following persons:"
echo
echo "[E]vans, Roland"
echo "[J]ones, Mildred"
echo "[Smith], Julie"
echo "[Z]ane, Morris"
echo
read person
case "$person" in
# Note variable is quoted.
"E" | "e" )
# Accept upper or lowercase input.
echo
echo "Roland Evans"
echo "4321 Floppy Dr."
echo "Hardscrabble, CO 80753"
echo "(303) 734-9874"
echo "(303) 734-9892 fax"
echo "revans@zzy.net"
echo "Business partner & old friend"
;;
# Note double semicolon to terminate
# each option.
"J" | "j" )
echo
echo "Mildred Jones"
echo "249 E. 7th St., Apt. 19"
echo "New York, NY 10009"
echo "(212) 533-2814"
echo "(212) 533-9972 fax"
echo "milliej@loisaida.com"
echo "Girlfriend"
echo "Birthday: Feb. 11"
;;
# Add info for Smith & Zane later.
* )
# Default option.
echo
echo "Not yet in database."
;;
esac
echo
exit 0
select
The select construct, adopted from the Korn Shell, is yet
another tool for building menus.
select variable [in list]
do
command...
break
done
This prompts the user to enter one of the choices presented in
the variable list. Note that select uses the PS3 prompt (#? )
by default, but that this may be changed.
Example 3-33. Creating menus using select
#!/bin/bash
PS3='Choose your favorite vegetable: '
# Sets the prompt string.
echo
select vegetable in "beans" "carrots" "potatoes" "onions" "rutabagas"
do
echo
echo "Your favorite veggie is $vegetable."
echo "Yuck!"
echo
break
# if no 'break' here, keeps looping forever.
done
exit 0
If in list is omitted, then select uses the list of command
line arguments ($@) passed to the script or to the function in
which the select construct is embedded. (Compare this to the
behavior of a
for variable [in list]
construct with the in list omitted.)
Example 3-34. Creating menus using select in a function
#!/bin/bash
PS3='Choose your favorite vegetable: '
echo
choice_of()
{
select vegetable
# [in list] omitted, so 'select' uses arguments passed to function.
do
echo
echo "Your favorite veggie is $vegetable."
echo "Yuck!"
echo
break
done
}
choice_of beans rice carrots radishes tomatoes spinach
# $1 $2 $3 $4 $5 $6
# passed to choice_of() function
exit 0
_________________________________________________________________
3.9. Internal Commands and Builtins
A builtin is a command contained in the bash tool set, literally built
in.
getopts
This powerful tool parses command line arguments passed to the
script. This is the bash analog of the getopt library function
familiar to C programmers. It permits passing and concatenating
multiple flags[150][1] and options to a script (for example
scriptname -abc -e /usr/local).
The getopts construct uses two implicit variables. $OPTIND is
the argument pointer (OPTion INDex) and $OPTARG (OPTion
ARGument) the (optional) argument attached to a flag. A colon
following the flag name in the declaration tags that flag as
having an option.
A getopts construct usually comes packaged in a while loop,
which processes the flags and options one at a time, then
decrements the implicit $OPTIND variable to step to the next.
Note:
1. The arguments must be passed from the command line to the
script preceded by a minus (-) or a plus (+), else getopts
will not process them, and will, in fact, terminate option
processing at the first argument encountered lacking these
modifiers.
2. The getopts template differs slightly from the standard while
loop, in that it lacks condition brackets.
3. The getopts construct replaces the obsolete getopt command.
while getopts ":abcde:fg" Option
# Initial declaration.
# a, b, c, d, e, f, and g are the flags expected.
# The : after flag 'e' shows it will have an option passed with it.
do
case $Option in
a ) # Do something with variable 'a'.
b ) # Do something with variable 'b'.
...
e) # Do something with 'e', and also with $OPTARG,
# which is the associated argument passed with 'e'.
...
g ) # Do something with variable 'g'.
esac
done
shift $(($OPTIND - 1))
# Move argument pointer to next.
# All this is not nearly as complicated as it looks <grin>.
Example 3-35. Using getopts to read the flags/options passed to a
script
#!/bin/bash
# 'getopts' processes command line args to script.
# Usage: scriptname -options
# Note: dash (-) necessary
# Try invoking this script with
# 'scriptname -mn'
# 'scriptname -oq qOption'
# (qOption can be some arbitrary string.)
OPTERROR=33
if [ -z $1 ]
# Exit and complain if no argument(s) given.
then
echo "Usage: `basename $0` options (-mnopqrs)"
exit $OPTERROR
fi
while getopts ":mnopq:rs" Option
do
case $Option in
m ) echo "Scenario #1: option -m-";;
n | o ) echo "Scenario #2: option -$Option-";;
p ) echo "Scenario #3: option -p-";;
q ) echo "Scenario #4: option -q-, with argument \"$OPTARG\"";;
# Note that option 'q' must have an additional argument,
# otherwise nothing happens.
r | s ) echo "Scenario #5: option -$Option-"'';;
* ) echo "Unimplemented option chosen.";;
esac
done
shift $(($OPTIND - 1))
# Decrements the argument pointer
# so it points to next argument.
exit 0
exit
Unconditionally terminates a script. The exit command may
optionally take an integer argument, which is returned to the
shell as the exit status of the script. It is a good practice
to end all but the simplest scripts with an exit 0, indicating
a successful run.
set
The set command changes the value of internal script variables.
One use for this is to toggle option flags which help determine
the behavior of the script (see [151]Section 3.25). Another
application for it is to reset the positional parameters that a
script sees as the result of a command (set `command`). The
script can then parse the fields of the command output.
Example 3-36. Using set with positional parameters
#!/bin/bash
# script "set-test"
# Invoke this script with three command line parameters,
# for example, "./set-test one two three".
echo
echo "Positional parameters before set \`uname -a\` :"
echo "Command-line argument #1 = $1"
echo "Command-line argument #2 = $2"
echo "Command-line argument #3 = $3"
echo
set `uname -a`
# Sets the positional parameters to the output
# of the command `uname -a`
echo "Positional parameters after set \`uname -a\` :"
# $1, $2, $3, etc. reinitialized to result of `uname -a`
echo "Field #1 of 'uname -a' = $1"
echo "Field #2 of 'uname -a' = $2"
echo "Field #3 of 'uname -a' = $3"
echo
exit 0
unset
The unset command deletes an internal script variable. It is a
way of negating a previous set. Note that this command does not
affect positional parameters.
export
The export command makes available variables to all child
processes of the running script or shell. Unfortunately, there
is no way to export variables back to the parent process, to
the process that called or invoked the script or shell. One
important use of export command is in startup files, to
initialize and make accessible environmental variables to
subsequent user processes (see [152]Section 3.21).
readonly
Same as declare -r, sets a variable as read-only, or, in
effect, as a constant. Attempts to change the variable fail
with an error message. This is the shell analog of the C
language const type qualifier.
basename
Strips the path information from a file name, printing only the
file name. The construction basename $0 lets the script know
its name, that is, the name it was invoked by. This can be used
for "usage" messages if, for example a script is called with
missing arguments:
echo "Usage: `basename $0` arg1 arg2 ... argn"
dirname
Strips the basename from a file name, printing only the path
information.
Note: basename and dirname can operate on any arbitrary string. The
filename given as an argument does not need to refer to an existing
file.
Example 3-37. basename and dirname
#!/bin/bash
a=/home/heraclius/daily-journal.txt
echo "Basename of /home/heraclius/daily-journal.txt = `basename $a`"
echo "Dirname of /home/heraclius/daily-journal.txt = `dirname $a`"
exit 0
read
"Reads" the value of a variable from stdin, that is,
interactively fetches input from the keyboard. The -a option
lets read get array variables (see [153]Example 3-72).
Example 3-38. Variable assignment, using read
#!/bin/bash
echo -n "Enter the value of variable 'var1': "
# -n option to echo suppresses newline
read var1
# Note no '$' in front of var1, since it is being set.
echo "var1 = $var1"
# Note that a single 'read' statement can set multiple variables.
echo
echo -n "Enter the values of variables 'var2' and 'var3' (separated by a space
or tab): "
read var2 var3
echo "var2 = $var2 var3 = $var3"
# If you input only one value, the other variable(s) will remain unset (null).
exit 0
The read command may also "read" its variable value from a file
redirected to stdin (see [154]Section 3.13). If the file
contains more than one line, only the first line is assigned to
the variable. If there is more than one parameter to the read,
then each variable gets assigned a successive whitespace
delineated string. Caution!
read var1 <data-file
echo "var1 = $var1"
# var1 set to the entire first line of the input file "data-file"
read var2 var3 <data-file
echo "var2 = $var2 var3 = $var3"
# Note inconsistent behavior of "read" here.
# 1) Rewinds back to the beginning of input file.
# 2) Each variable is now set to a corresponding string, separated by whitespac
e,
# rather than to an entire line of text.
# 3) The final variable gets the remainder of the line.
# 4) If there are more variables to be set than whitespace-terminated strings
# on the first line of the file, then the excess variable remain unset.
true
A command that returns a successful (zero) exit status, but
does nothing else.
# Endless loop
while true
# alias for :
do
operation-1
operation-2
...
operation-n
# Need a way to break out of loop.
done
false
A command that returns an unsuccessful exit status, but does
nothing else.
# Null loop
while false
do
# The following code will not execute.
operation-1
operation-2
...
operation-n
# Nothing happens!
done
factor
Factor an integer into prime factors.
bash$ factor 27417
27417: 3 13 19 37
hash [cmds]
Record the path name of specified commands (in the shell hash
table), so the shell or script will not need to search the
$PATH on subsequent calls to those commands. When hash is
called with no arguments, it simply lists the commands that
have been hashed.
pwd
Print Working Directory. This gives the user's (or script's)
current directory.
pushd, popd, dirs
This command set is a mechanism for bookmarking working
directories, a means of moving back and forth through
directories in an orderly manner. A pushdown stack is used to
keep track of directory names. Options allow various
manipulations of the directory stack.
pushd dir-name pushes the path dir-name onto the directory
stack and simultaneously changes the current working directory
to dir-name
popd removes (pops) the top directory path name off the
directory stack and simultaneously changes the current working
directory to that directory popped from the stack.
dirs lists the contents of the directory stack. A successful
pushd or popd will automatically invoke dirs.
Scripts that require various changes to the current working
directory without hard-coding the directory name changes can
make good use of these commands. Note that the implicit
DIRSTACK array variable, accessible from within a script, holds
the contents of the directory stack.
Example 3-39. Changing the current working directory
#!/bin/bash
dir1=/usr/local
dir2=/var/spool
pushd $dir1
# Will do an automatic 'dirs'
# (list directory stack to stdout).
echo "Now in directory `pwd`."
# Uses back-quoted 'pwd'.
# Now, do some stuff in directory 'dir1'.
pushd $dir2
echo "Now in directory `pwd`."
# Now, do some stuff in directory 'dir2'.
echo "The top entry in the DIRSTACK array is $DIRSTACK."
popd
echo "Now back in directory `pwd`."
# Now, do some more stuff in directory 'dir1'.
popd
echo "Now back in original working directory `pwd`."
exit 0
source, . (dot command), dirs
This command, when invoked from the command line, executes a
script. Within a script, a source file-name loads the file
file-name. This is the shell scripting equivalent of a C/C++
#include directive. It is useful in situations when multiple
scripts use a common data file or function library.
Example 3-40. "Including" a data file
#!/bin/bash
# Load a data file.
. data-file
# Same effect as "source data-file"
# Note that the file "data-file", given below
# must be present in working directory.
# Now, reference some data from that file.
echo "variable1 (from data-file) = $variable1"
echo "variable3 (from data-file) = $variable3"
let "sum = $variable2 + $variable4"
echo "Sum of variable2 + variable4 (from data-file) = $sum"
echo "message1 (from data-file) is \"$message1\""
# Note: escaped quotes
print_message This is the message-print function in the data-file.
exit 0
File data-file for [155]Example 3-40, above. Must be present in same
directory.
# This is a data file loaded by a script.
# Files of this type may contain variables, functions, etc.
# It may be loaded with a 'source' or '.' command by a shell script.
# Let's initialize some variables.
variable1=22
variable2=474
variable3=5
variable4=97
message1="Hello, how are you?"
message2="Enough for now. Goodbye."
print_message ()
{
# Echoes any message passed to it.
if [ -z $1 ]
then
return 1
# Error, if argument missing.
fi
echo
until [ -z "$1" ]
do
# Step through arguments passed to function.
echo -n "$1"
# Echo args one at a time, suppressing line feeds.
echo -n " "
# Insert spaces between words.
shift
# Next one.
done
echo
return 0
}
_________________________________________________________________
3.9.1. Job Control Commands
wait
Stop script execution until all jobs running in background have
terminated, or until the job number specified as an option
terminates. Sometimes used to prevent a script from exiting
before a background job finishes executing (this would create a
dreaded orphan process).
Example 3-41. Waiting for a process to finish before proceeding
#!/bin/bash
if [ -z $1 ]
then
echo "Usage: `basename $0` find-string"
exit 1
fi
echo "Updating 'locate' database..."
echo "This may take a while."
updatedb /usr &
# Must be run as root.
wait
# Don't run the rest of the script until 'updatedb' finished.
# You want the the database updated before looking up the file name.
locate $1
# Lacking the wait command, in the worse case scenario,
# the script would exit while 'updatedb' was still running,
# leaving it as an orphan process.
exit 0
suspend
This has the same effect as Control-Z, pausing a foreground
job.
stop
This has the same effect as suspend, but for a background job.
disown
Remove job(s) from the shell's table of active jobs.
jobs
Lists the jobs running in the background, giving the job
number. Not as useful as ps.
times
Gives statistics on the system time used in executing commands,
in the following form:
0m0.020s 0m0.020s
This capability is of very limited value, since it is uncommon
to profile and benchmark shell scripts.
kill
Forcibly terminate a process by sending it an appropriate
terminate signal. Note that kill -l lists all the "signals".
(See [156]Section 3.24 for more detail on signals).
_________________________________________________________________
3.10. External Filters, Programs and Commands
This is a descriptive listing of standard UNIX commands useful in
shell scripts.
ls
The basic file "list" command. It is all too easy to
underestimate the power of this humble command. For example,
using the -R, recursive option, ls provides a tree-like listing
of a directory structure.
Example 3-42. Using ls to create a table of contents for burning a CDR
disk
#!/bin/bash
# Script to automate burning a CDR.
# Uses Joerg Schilling's "cdrecord" package
# (http://www.fokus.gmd.de/nthp/employees/schilling/cdrecord.html)
# If this script invoked as an ordinary user, need to suid cdrecord
# (chmod u+s /usr/bin/cdrecord, as root).
if [ -z $1 ]
then
IMAGE_DIRECTORY=/opt
# Default directory, if not specified on command line.
else
IMAGE_DIRECTORY=$1
fi
ls -lRF $IMAGE_DIRECTORY > $IMAGE_DIRECTORY/contents
# The "l" option gives a "long" file listing.
# The "R" option makes the listing recursive.
# The "F" option marks the file types (directories suffixed by a /).
echo "Creating table of contents."
mkisofs -r -o cdimage.iso $IMAGE_DIRECTORY
echo "Creating ISO9660 file system image (cdimage.iso)."
cdrecord -v -isosize speed=2 dev=0,0 cdimage.iso
# Change speed parameter to speed of your burner.
echo "Burning the disk."
echo "Please be patient, this will take a while."
exit 0
chmod
Changes the attributes of a file.
chmod +x filename
# Makes "filename" executable for all users.
chmod 644 filename
# Makes "filename" readable/writable to owner, readable to
# others
# (octal mode).
chmod 1777 directory-name
# Gives everyone read, write, and execute permission in directory,
# however also sets the "sticky bit", which means that
# only the directory owner can change files in the directory.
umask
Set the default file attributes (for a particular user).
find
exec COMMAND
Carries out COMMAND on each file that find scores a hit on.
COMMAND is followed by {} \; (the ; is escaped to make certain
the shell reads it literally and terminates the command
sequence). This causes COMMAND to bind to and act on the path
name of the files found.
Example 3-43. Badname, eliminate file names in current directory
containing bad characters and white space.
#!/bin/bash
# Delete filenames in current directory containing bad characters.
for filename in *
do
badname=`echo "$filename" | sed -n /[\+\{\;\"\\\=\?~\(\)\<\>\&\*\|\$]/p`
# Files containing those nasties: + { ; " \ = ? ~ ( ) < > & * | $
rm $badname 2>/dev/null
# So error messages deep-sixed.
done
# Now, take care of files containing all manner of whitespace.
find . -name "* *" -exec rm -f {} \;
# The "{}" references the paths of all the files that "find" finds.
# The '\' ensures that the ';' is interpreted literally, as end of command.
exit 0
See the man page for find for more detail.
xargs
A filter for feeding arguments to a command, and also a tool
for assembling the commands themselves. It breaks a data stream
into small enough chunks for filters and commands to process.
Consider it as a powerful replacement for backquotes. In
situations where backquotes fail with a too many arguments
error, substituting xargs often works. Normally, xargs reads
from 'stdin' or from a pipe, but it can also be given the
output of a file.
ls | xargs -p -l gzip gzips every file in current directory,
one at a time, prompting before each operation.
One of the more interesting xargs options is -n XX, which
limits the number of arguments passed to XX.
ls | xargs -n 8 echo lists the files in the current directory
in 8 columns.
Example 3-44. Log file using xargs to monitor system log
#!/bin/bash
# Generates a log file in current directory
# from the tail end of /var/log messages.
# Note: /var/log/messages must be readable by ordinary users
# if invoked by same (#root chmod 755 /var/log/messages).
( date; uname -a ) >>logfile
# Time and machine name
echo --------------------------------------------------------------------- >>lo
gfile
tail -5 /var/log/messages | xargs | fmt -s >>logfile
echo >>logfile
echo >>logfile
exit 0
Example 3-45. copydir, copying files in current directory to another,
using xargs
#!/bin/bash
# Copy (verbose) all files in current directory
# to directory specified on command line.
if [ -z $1 ]
# Exit if no argument given.
then
echo "Usage: `basename $0` directory-to-copy-to"
exit 1
fi
ls . | xargs -i -t cp ./{} $1
# This is the exact equivalent of
# cp * $1
exit 0
eval arg1, arg2, ...
Translates into commands the arguments in a list (useful for
code generation within a script).
Example 3-46. Showing the effect of eval
#!/bin/bash
y=`eval ls -l`
echo $y
y=`eval df`
echo $y
# Note that LF's not preserved
exit 0
Example 3-47. Forcing a log-off
#!/bin/bash
y=`eval ps ax | sed -n '/ppp/p' | awk '{ print $1 }'`
# Finding the process number of 'ppp'
kill -9 $y
# Killing it
# Restore to previous state...
chmod 666 /dev/ttyS3
# Doing a SIGKILL on ppp changes the permissions
# on the serial port. Must be restored.
rm /var/lock/LCK..ttyS3
# Remove the serial port lock file.
exit 0
expr arg1 operation arg2 ...
All-purpose expression evaluator: Concatenates and evaluates
the arguments according to the operation given (arguments must
be separated by spaces). Operations may be arithmetic,
comparison, string, or logical.
expr 3 + 5
returns 8
expr 5 % 3
returns 2
y=`expr $y + 1`
incrementing variable, same as let y=y+1 and y=$(($y+1)),
as discussed elsewhere
z=`expr substr $string28 $position $length`
Note that external programs, such as sed and Perl have
far superior string parsing facilities, and it might well
be advisable to use them instead of the built-in bash
ones.
Example 3-48. Using expr
#!/bin/bash
# Demonstrating some of the uses of 'expr'
# +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
echo
# Arithmetic Operators
echo Arithmetic Operators
echo
a=`expr 5 + 3`
echo 5 + 3 = $a
a=`expr $a + 1`
echo
echo a + 1 = $a
echo \(incrementing a variable\)
a=`expr 5 % 3`
# modulo
echo
echo 5 mod 3 = $a
echo
echo
# Logical Operators
echo Logical Operators
echo
a=3
echo a = $a
b=`expr $a \> 10`
echo 'b=`expr $a \> 10`, therefore...'
echo "If a > 10, b = 0 (false)"
echo b = $b
b=`expr $a \< 10`
echo "If a < 10, b = 1 (true)"
echo b = $b
echo
echo
# Comparison Operators
echo Comparison Operators
echo
a=zipper
echo a is $a
if [ `expr $a = snap` ]
# Force re-evaluation of variable 'a'
then
echo "a is not zipper"
fi
echo
echo
# String Operators
echo String Operators
echo
a=1234zipper43231
echo The string being operated upon is $a.
# index: position of substring
b=`expr index $a 23`
echo Numerical position of first 23 in $a is $b.
# substr: print substring, starting position & length specified
b=`expr substr $a 2 6`
echo Substring of $a, starting at position 2 and 6 chars long is $b.
# length: length of string
b=`expr length $a`
echo Length of $a is $b.
# 'match' operations similarly to 'grep'
b=`expr match $a [0-9]*`
echo Number of digits at the beginning of $a is $b.
b=`expr match $a '\([0-9]*\)'`
echo The digits at the beginning of $a are $b.
echo
exit 0
Note that : can substitute for match. b=`expr $a : [0-9]*` is
an exact equivalent of b=`expr match $a [0-9]*` in the above
example.
let
The let command carries out arithmetic operations on variables.
In many cases, it functions as a less complex version of expr.
Example 3-49. Letting let do some arithmetic.
#!/bin/bash
echo
let a=11
# Same as 'a=11'
let a=a+5
# Equivalent to let "a = a + 5"
# (double quotes makes it more readable)
echo "a = $a"
let "a <<= 3"
# Equivalent of let "a = a << 3"
echo "a left-shifted 3 places = $a"
let "a /= 4"
# Equivalent to let "a = a / 4"
echo $a
let "a -= 5"
# Equivalent to let "a = a - 5"
echo $a
let "a = a * 10"
echo $a
let "a %= 8"
echo $a
exit 0
printf
The printf, formatted print, command is an enhanced echo. It is
a limited variant of the C language printf, and the syntax is
somewhat different.
printf format-string... parameter...
See the printf man page for in-depth coverage.
Note: Older versions of bash may not support printf.
Example 3-50. printf in action
#!/bin/bash
# printf demo
PI=3.14159265358979
DecimalConstant=31373
Message1="Greetings,"
Message2="Earthling."
echo
printf "Pi to 2 decimal places = %1.2f" $PI
echo
printf "Pi to 9 decimal places = %1.9f" $PI
# Note correct round off.
printf "\n"
# Prints a line feed, equivalent to 'echo'.
printf "Constant = \t%d\n" $DecimalConstant
# Insert tab (\t)
printf "%s %s \n" $Message1 $Message2
echo
exit 0
at
The at job control command executes a given set of commands at
a specified time. This is a user version of cron.
at 2pm January 15 prompts for a set of commands to execute at
that time. These commands may include executable shell scripts.
Using either the -f option or input redirection (<), at reads a
command list from a file. This file can include shell scripts,
though they should, of course, be noninteractive.
bash$ at 2:30 am Friday < at-jobs.list
job 2 at 2000-10-27 02:30
ps
Lists currently executing jobs by owner and process id. This is
usually invoked with ax options, and may be piped to grep to
search for a specific process.
ps ax | grep sendmail results in:
295 ? S 0:00 sendmail: accepting connections on port 25
batch
The batch job control command is similar to at, but it runs a
command list when the system load drops below .8. Like at, it
can read commands from a file with the -f option.
sleep
This is the shell equivalent of a wait loop. It pauses for a
specified number of seconds, doing nothing. This can be useful
for timing or in processes running in the background, checking
for a specific event every so often.
sleep 3
# Pauses 3 seconds.
dd
This is the somewhat obscure and much feared "data duplicator"
command. It simply copies a file (or stdin/stdout), but with
conversions. Possible conversions are ASCII/EBCDIC, upper/lower
case, swapping of byte pairs between input and output, and
skipping and/or truncating the head or tail of the input file.
A dd --help lists the conversion and other options that this
powerful utility takes.
The dd command can copy raw data and disk images to and from
devices, such as floppies. It can even be used to create boot
floppies.
dd if=kernel-image of=/dev/fd0H1440
One important use for dd is initializing temporary swap files
(see [157]Example 3-79).
sort
File sorter, often used as a filter in a pipe. See the man page
for options.
diff
Simple file comparison utility. The files must be sorted (this
may, if necessary be accomplished by filtering the files
through sort before passing them to diff). diff file-1 file-2
outputs the lines in the files that differ, with carets showing
which file each particular line belongs to. A common use for
diff is to generate difference files to be used with patch (see
below). The -e option outputs files suitable for ed or ex
scripts.
patch -p1 <patch-file
# Takes all the changes listed in 'patch-file' and applies them
# to the files referenced therein.
cd /usr/src
gzip -cd patchXX.gz | patch -p0
# Upgrading kernel source using 'patch'.
# From the Linux kernel docs "README",
# by anonymous author (Alan Cox?).
comm
Versatile file comparison utility. The files must be sorted for
this to be useful.
comm -options first-file second-file
comm file-1 file-2 outputs three columns:
+ column 1 = lines unique to file-1
+ column 2 = lines unique to file-2
+ column 3 = lines common to both.
The options allow suppressing output of one or more columns.
+ -1 suppresses column 1
+ -2 suppresses column 2
+ -3 suppresses column 3
+ -12 suppresses both columns 1 and 2, etc.
uniq
This filter removes duplicate lines from a sorted file. It is
often seen in a pipe coupled with sort.
cat list-1 list-2 list-3 | sort | uniq > final.list
expand
A filter than converts tabs to spaces, often seen in a pipe.
cut
A tool for extracting fields from files. It is similar to the
print $N command set in awk, but more limited. It may be
simpler to use cut in a script than awk. Particularly important
are the -d (delimiter) and -f (field specifier) options.
Using cut to obtain a listing of the mounted filesystems:
cat /etc/mtab | cut -d ' ' -f1,2
Using cut to list the OS and kernel version:
uname -a | cut -d" " -f1,3,11,12
cut -d ' ' -f2,3 filename is equivalent to awk '{ print $2, $3
}' filename
colrm
Column removal filter. This removes columns (characters) from a
file and writes them, lacking the specified columns, back to
stdout. colrm 2 3 <filename removes the second and third
characters from each line of the text file filename.
paste
Tool for merging together different files into a single,
multi-column file. In combination with cut, useful for creating
system log files.
join
Consider this a more flexible version of paste. It works on
exactly two files, but permits specifying which fields to paste
together, and in which order.
cpio
This specialized archiving copy command is rarely used any
more, having been supplanted by tar/gzip. It still has its
uses, such as moving a directory tree.
Example 3-51. Using cpio to move a directory tree
#!/bin/bash
# Copying a directory tree using cpio.
if [ $# -ne 2 ]
then
echo Usage: `basename $0` source destination
exit 1
fi
source=$1
destination=$2
find "$source" -depth | cpio -admvp "$destination"
exit 0
cd
The familiar cd change directory command finds use in scripts
where execution of a command requires being in a specified
directory.
(cd /source/directory && tar cf - . ) | (cd /dest/directory && tar xvfp -)
[from the previously cited example by Alan Cox]
touch
Utility for updating access/modification times of a file to
current system time or other specified time, but also useful
for creating a new file. The command touch zzz will create a
new file of zero length, named zzz, assuming that zzz did not
previously exist. Time-stamping empty files in this way is
useful for storing date information, for example in keeping
track of modification times on a project.
split
Utility for splitting a file into smaller chunks. Usually used
for splitting up large files in order to back them up on
floppies or preparatory to e-mailing or uploading them.
rm
Delete (remove) a file or files. The -f forces removal of even
readonly files. When used with the recursive flag -r, this
command removes files all the way down the directory tree (very
dangerous!).
rmdir
Remove directory. The directory must be empty of all files,
including dotfiles, for this command to succeed.
ln
Creates links to pre-existings files. Most often used with the
-s, symbolic or "soft" link flag. This permits referencing the
linked file by more than one name and is a superior alternative
to aliasing.
ln -s oldfile newfile links the previously existing oldfile to
the newly created link, newfile.
mkdir
Make directory, creates a new directory. mkdir -p
project/programs/December creates the named directory. The -p
option automatically creates any necessary parent directories.
cp
This is the file copy command. cp file1 file2 copies file1 to
file2, overwriting file2 if it already exists.
mv
This is the file move command. It is equivalent to a
combination of cp and rm. It may be used to move multiple files
to a directory.
rcp
"Remote copy", copies files between two different networked
machines. Using rcp and similar utilities with security
implications in a shell script may not be advisable. Consider
instead, using an expect script.
yes
In its default behavior the yes command feeds a continuous
string of the character y followed by a line feed to stdout. A
control-c terminates the run. A different output string may be
specified, as in yes different string, which would continually
output different string to stdout. One might well ask the
purpose of this. From the command line or in a script, the
output of yes can be redirected or piped into a program
expecting user input. In effect, this becomes a sort of poor
man's version of expect.
echo
prints (to stdout) an expression or variable ($variable).
echo Hello
echo $a
Normally, each echo command prints a terminal newline, but the
-n option suppresses this.
cat, tac
cat, an acronym for concatenate, lists a file to stdout. When
combined with redirection (> or >>), it is commonly used to
concatenate files.
cat filename
cat file.1 file.2 file.3 > file.123
The -n option to cat inserts consecutive numbers before each
line of the target file(s).
tac, is the inverse of cat, listing a file backwards from its
end.
head
lists the first 10 lines of a file to stdout.
tail
lists the end of a file to stdout (the default is 10 lines, but
this can be changed). Commonly used to keep track of changes to
a system logfile, using the -f option, which outputs lines
appended to the file.
[158]Example 3-44 and [159]Example 3-83 show tail in action.
tee
[UNIX borrows an idea here from the plumbing trade.]
This is a redirection operator, but with a difference. Like the
plumber's tee, it permits "siponing off" the output of a
command or commands within a pipe, but without affecting the
result. This is useful for printing an ongoing process to a
file or paper, perhaps to keep track of it for debugging
purposes.
tee
|------> to file
|
===============|===============
command--->----|-operator-->---> result of command(s)
===============================
cat listfile* | sort | tee check.file | uniq > result.file
(The file check.file contains the concatenated sorted
"listfiles", before the duplicate lines are removed by uniq.)
sed, awk
manipulation scripting languages in order to parse text and
command output
sed
Non-interactive "stream editor", permits using many ex commands
in batch mode.
awk
Programmable file extractor and formatter, good for
manipulating and/or extracting fields (columns) in text files.
Its syntax is similar to C.
wc
wc gives a "word count" on a file or I/O stream:
$ wc /usr/doc/sed-3.02/README
20 127 838 /usr/doc/sed-3.02/README
[20 lines 127 words 838 characters]
wc -w gives only the word count.
wc -l gives only the line count.
wc -c gives only the character count.
wc -L gives only the length of the longest line.
Using wc to count how many .txt files are in current working
directory:
$ ls *.txt | wc -l
tr
character translation filter.
Note: must use quoting and/or brackets, as appropriate.
tr "A-Z" "*" <filename changes all the uppercase letters in
filename to asterisks (writes to stdout).
tr -d [0-9] <filename deletes all digits from the file
filename.
Example 3-52. toupper: Transforms a file to all uppercase.
#!/bin/bash
# Changes a file to all uppercase.
if [ -z $1 ]
# Standard check whether command line arg is present.
then
echo "Usage: `basename $0` filename"
exit 1
fi
tr [a-z] [A-Z] <$1
exit 0
Example 3-53. lowercase: Changes all filenames in working directory to
lowercase.
#! /bin/bash
#
# Changes every filename in working directory to all lowercase.
#
# Inspired by a script of john dubois,
# which was translated into into bash by Chet Ramey,
# and considerably simplified by Mendel Cooper,
# author of this HOWTO.
for filename in * #Traverse all files in directory.
do
fname=`basename $filename`
n=`echo $fname | tr A-Z a-z` #Change name to lowercase.
if [ $fname != $n ] # Rename only files not already lowercase.
then
mv $fname $n
fi
done
exit 0
fold
A filter that wraps inputted lines to a specified width.
fmt
Simple-minded file formatter.
nl
Line numbering filter. nl filename lists filename to stdout,
but inserts consecutive numbers at the beginning of each
non-blank line. If filename omitted, operates on stdin.
Example 3-54. nl: A self-numbering script.
#!/bin/bash
# This file echoes itself twice to stdout with its lines numbered.
# 'nl' sees this as line 3 since it does not number blank lines.
# 'cat -n' sees the above line as number 5.
nl `basename $0`
echo; echo # Now, let's try it with 'cat -n'
cat -n `basename $0`
# The difference is that 'cat -n' numbers the blank lines.
exit 0
pr
Print formatting filter. This will paginate a file (or stdout)
into sections suitable for hard copy printing. A particularly
useful option is -d, forcing double-spacing.
Example 3-55. Formatted file listing.
#!/bin/bash
# Get a file listing...
b=`ls /usr/local/bin`
# ...40 columns wide.
echo $b | fmt -w 40
# Could also have been done by
# echo $b | fold - -s -w 40
exit 0
date
Simply invoked, date prints the date and time to stdout. Where
this command gets interesting is in its formatting and parsing
options.
Example 3-56. Using date
#!/bin/bash
#Using the 'date' command
# Needs a leading '+' to invoke formatting.
echo "The number of days since the year's beginning is `date +%j`."
# %j gives day of year.
echo "The number of seconds elapsed since 01/01/1970 is `date +%s`."
# %s yields number of seconds since "UNIX epoch" began,
# but how is this useful?
prefix=temp
suffix=`eval date +%s`
filename=$prefix.$suffix
echo $filename
# It's great for creating "unique" temp filenames,
# even better than using $$.
# Read the 'date' man page for more formatting options.
exit 0
time
Outputs very verbose timing statistics for executing a command.
time ls -l / gives something like this:
0.00user 0.01system 0:00.05elapsed 16%CPU (0avgtext+0avgdata 0maxresident)k
0inputs+0outputs (149major+27minor)pagefaults 0swaps
See also the very similar times command in the previous
section.
grep
A multi-purpose file search tool that uses regular expressions.
Originally a command/filter in the ancient ed line editor,
g/re/p, or global - regular expression - print.
grep pattern [file...]
search the files file, etc. for occurrences of pattern.
ls -l | grep '.txt' has the same effect as ls -l *.txt.
The -i option to grep causes a case-insensitive search.
[160]Example 3-83 demonstrates how to use grep to search for a
keyword in a system log file.
which
which <command> gives the full path to the command. This is
useful for finding out whether a particular command or utility
is installed on the system.
$bash which pgp
/usr/bin/pgp
script
This utility records (saves to a file) all the user keystrokes
at the command line in a console or an xterm window. This, in
effect, create a record of a session.
tar
The standard UNIX archiving utility. Originally a Tape
ARchiving program, from whence it derived its name, it has
developed into a general purpose package that can handle all
manner of archiving with all types of destination devices,
ranging from tape drives to regular files to even stdout. GNU
tar has long since been patched to accept gzip options, see
below.
gzip
The standard GNU/UNIX compression utility, replacing the
inferior and proprietary compress.
shar
Shell archiving utility. The files in a shell archive are
concatenated without compression, and the resultant archive is
essentially a shell script, complete with #!/bin/sh header, and
containing all the necessary unarchiving commands. Shar
archives still show up in Internet newsgroups, but otherwise
shar has been pretty well replaced by tar/gzip. The unshar
command unpacks shar archives.
file
A utility for identifying file types. The command file
file-name will return a file specification for file-name, such
as ascii text or data. It references the magic numbers found in
/usr/share/magic, /etc/magic, or /usr/lib/magic, depending on
the Linux/UNIX distribution.
uuencode
This utility encodes binary files into ASCII characters, making
them suitable for transmission in the body of an e-mail message
or in a newsgroup posting.
uudecode
This reverses the encoding, decoding uuencoded files back into
the original binaries.
Example 3-57. uuencoding encoded files
#!/bin/bash
lines=35
# Allow 35 lines for the header (very generous).
for File in *
# Test all the files in the current working directory...
do
search1=`head -$lines $File | grep begin | wc -w`
search2=`tail -$lines $File | grep end | wc -w`
# Files which are uuencoded have a "begin" near the beginning,
# and an "end" near the end.
if [ $search1 -gt 0 ]
then
if [ $search2 -gt 0 ]
then
echo "uudecoding - $File -"
uudecode $File
fi
fi
done
exit 0
more, less
Pagers that display a text file or text streaming to stdout,
one page at a time.
jot, seq
These utilities emit a sequence of integers, with a user
selected increment. This can be used to advantage in a for
loop.
Example 3-58. Using seq to generate loop arguments
#!/bin/bash
for a in `seq 80`
# Same as for a in 1 2 3 4 5 ... 80 (saves much typing!).
# May also use 'jot' (if present on system).
do
echo -n "$a "
done
echo
exit 0
clear
The clear command simply clears the text screen at the console
or in an xterm. The prompt and cursor reappear at the upper
lefthand corner of the screen or xterm window. This command may
be used either at the command line or in a script. See
[161]Example 3-32.
_________________________________________________________________
3.11. System and Administrative Commands
The startup and shutdown scripts in /etc/rc.d illustrate the uses (and
usefulness) of these comands. These are usually invoked by root and
used for system maintenance or emergency filesystem repairs. Use with
caution, as some of these commands may damage your system if misused.
uname
Output system specifications (OS, kernel version, etc.) to
stdout. Invoked with the -a option, gives verbose system info.
uname -a outputs something like:
Linux localhost.localdomain 2.2.15-2.5.0 #1 Sat Feb 5 00:13:43 EST 2000 i586 un
known
ulimit
Sets an upper limit on system resources. Usually invoked with
the -f option, which sets a limit on file size (ulimit -f 1000
sets a 1-meg limit on files).
uptime
Shows how long the system has been running, along with
associated statistics.
bash$ uptime
10:28pm up 1:57, 3 users, load average: 0.17, 0.34, 0.27
env
Runs a program or script with certain environmental variables
set or changed (without changing the overall system
environment).
shopt
This command permits changing shell options on the fly. Works
with version 2 of bash only.
shopt -s cdspell
# Allows misspelling directory names with 'cd' command.
lockfile
This utility is part of the procmail package
([162]www.procmail.org). It creates a lock file, a semaphore
file that controls access to a file, device, or resource. The
lock file serves as a flag that this particular file, device,
or resource is in use by a particular process ("busy"), and
permitting only restricted access (or no access) to other
processes. Lock files are used in such applications as
protecting system mail folders from simultaneously being
changed by multiple users, indicating that a modem port is
being accessed, and showing that an instance of Netscape is
using its cache. Scripts may check for the existence of a lock
file created by a certain process to check if that process is
running. Note that if a script attempts create a lock file that
already exists, the script will likely hang.
cron
Administrative program scheduler, performing such duties as
cleaning up and deleting system log files and updating the
slocate database. This is the superuser version of at. It runs
as a daemon (background process) and executes scheduled entries
from /etc/crontab.
chroot
CHange ROOT directory. Normally commands are fetched from
$PATH, relative to /, the default root directory. This changes
the root directory to a different one (and also changes the
working directory to there). A chroot /opt would cause
references to /usr/bin to be translated to /opt/usr/bin, for
example. This is useful for security purposes, for instance
when the system administrator wishes to restrict certain users,
such as those telnetting in, to a secured portion of the
filesystem. Note that after a chroot, the execution path for
system binaries is no longer valid.
The chroot command is also handy when running from an emergency
boot floppy (chroot to /dev/fd0), or as an option to lilo when
recovering from a system crash. Other uses include installation
from a different filesystem (an rpm option). Invoke only as
root, and use with caution.
ldd
Show shared lib dependencies for an executable file.
bash$ ldd /bin/ls
libc.so.6 => /lib/libc.so.6 (0x4000c000)
/lib/ld-linux.so.2 => /lib/ld-linux.so.2 (0x80000000)
who
Show all users logged on to the system.
whoami is a variant of who that lists only the current user.
w
Show all logged on users and the processes belonging to them.
This is an extended version of who. The output of w may be
piped to grep to find a specific user and/or process.
bash# w | grep startx
grendel tty1 - 4:22pm 6:41 4.47s 0.45s startx
tty
Echoes the name of the current user's terminal. Note that each
separate xterm window counts as a different terminal.
bash# tty
/dev/pts/1
wall
This is an acronym for "write all", i.e., sending a message to
all users every terminal logged on in the network. It is
primarily a system administrator's tool, useful, for example,
when warning everyone that the system will shortly go down due
to a problem.
wall System going down for maintenance in 5 minutes!
fuser
Identifies the processes (by pid) that are accessing a given
file, set of files, or directory. May also be invoked with the
-k option, which kills those processes. This has interesting
implications for system security, especially in scripts
preventing unauthorized users from accessing system services.
logger
Appends a user-generated message to the system log
(/var/log/messages). You do not have to be root to invoke
logger.
logger Experiencing instability in network connection at 23:10, 05/21.
# Now, do a 'tail /var/log/messages'.
jobs
Lists all jobs running in the background.
ps
Shows currently running processes owned by user. Usually
invoked as ps ax, showing all running processes.
nohup
Keeps a command running even after user logs off. The command
will run as a foreground process unless followed by &. If you
use nohup within a script, consider coupling it with a wait to
avoid creating an orphan or zombie process.
free
Shows memory and cache usage in tabular form. The output of
this command lends itself to parsing, using grep, awk or Perl.
bash$ free
total used free shared buffers cached
Mem: 30504 28624 1880 15820 1608 16376
-/+ buffers/cache: 10640 19864
Swap: 68540 3128 65412
sync
Forces writing all updated data from buffers to hard drive.
While not strictly necessary, a sync assures the sys admin or
user that the data just changed will survive a sudden power
failure. In the olden days, a sync sync was a useful
precautionary measure before a system reboot.
init
The init command is the parent of all processes. Called in the
final step of a bootup, init determines the runlevel of the
system from /etc/inittab. Invoked by its alias telinit, and by
root only.
telinit
Symlinked to init, this is a means of changing the system
runlevel, usually done for system maintenance or emergency
filesystem repairs. Invoked only by root. This command can be
dangerous - be certain you understand it well before using!
runlevel
Shows the current and last runlevel, that is, whether the
system is halted (runlevel 0), in single-user mode (1), in
multi-user mode (2 or 3), in X Windows (5), or rebooting (6).
halt, shutdown, reboot
Command set to shut the system down, usually just prior to a
power down.
exec
This is actually a system call that replaces the current
process with a specified command. It is mostly seen in
combination with find, to execute a command on the files found.
When used as a standalone in a script, this forces an exit from
the script when the exec'ed command terminates. An exec is also
used to reassign file descriptors. exec <zzz-file replaces
stdin with the file zzz-file.
Example 3-59. Effects of exec
#!/bin/bash
exec echo "Exiting $0."
# Exit from script.
# The following lines never execute.
echo "Still here?"
exit 0
ifconfig
Network interface configuration utility.
route
Show info about or make changes to the kernel routing table.
netstat
Show current network information and statistics, such as
routing tables and active connections.
mknod
Creates block or character device files (may be necessary when
installing new hardware on the system).
mount
Mount a filesystem, usually on an external device, such as a
floppy or CDROM. The file /etc/fstab provides a handy listing
of available filesystems, including options, that may be
automatically or manually mounted. The file /etc/mtab shows the
currently mounted filesystems (including the virtual ones, such
as /proc).
mount -t iso9660 /dev/cdrom /mnt/cdrom
# Mounts CDROM
mount /mnt/cdrom
# Shortcut, if /mnt/cdrom listed in /etc/fstab
umount
Unmount a currently mounted filesystem. Before physically
removing a previously mounted floppy or CDROM disk, the device
must be umount'ed, else filesystem corruption may result.
umount /mnt/cdrom
lsmod
List installed kernel modules.
insmod
Force insertion of a kernel module. Must be invoked as root.
modprobe
Module loader that is normally invoked automatically in a
startup script.
depmod
Creates module dependency file, usually invoked from startup
script.
rdev
Get info about or make changes to root device, swap space, or
video mode. The functionality of rdev has generally been taken
over by lilo, but rdev remains useful for setting up a ram
disk. This is another dangerous command, if misused.
Using our knowledge of administrative commands, let us examine a
system script. One of the shortest and simplest to understand scripts
is killall, used to suspend running processes at system shutdown.
Example 3-60. killall, from /etc/rc.d/init.d
#!/bin/sh
# --> Comments added by the author of this HOWTO marked by "-->".
# --> This is part of the 'rc' script package
# --> by Miquel van Smoorenburg, <miquels@drinkel.nl.mugnet.org>
# --> This particular script seems to be Red Hat specific
# --> (may not be present in other distributions).
# Bring down all unneeded services that are still running (there shouldn't
# be any, so this is just a sanity check)
for i in /var/lock/subsys/*; do
# --> Standard for/in loop, but since "do" is on same line,
# --> it is necessary to add ";".
# Check if the script is there.
[ ! -f $i ] && continue
# --> This is a clever use of an "and list", equivalent to:
# --> if [ ! -f $i ]; then continue
# Get the subsystem name.
subsys=${i#/var/lock/subsys/}
# --> Match variable name, which, in this case, is the file name.
# --> This is the exact equivalent of subsys=`basename $i`.
# --> It gets it from the lock file name, and since if there
# --> is a lock file, that's proof the process has been running.
# --> See the "lockfile" entry, above.
# Bring the subsystem down.
if [ -f /etc/rc.d/init.d/$subsys.init ]; then
/etc/rc.d/init.d/$subsys.init stop
else
/etc/rc.d/init.d/$subsys stop
# --> Suspend running jobs and daemons
# --> using the 'stop' shell builtin.
fi
done
That wasn't so bad. Aside from a little fancy footwork with variable
matching, there is no new material there.
Exercise. In /etc/rc.d/init.d, analyze the halt script. It is a bit
longer than killall, but similar in concept. Make a copy of this
script somewhere in your home directory and experiment with it (do not
run it as root). Do a simulated run with the -vn flags (sh -vn
scriptname). Add extensive comments. Change the "action" commands to
"echos".
Now, look at some of the more complex scripts in /etc/rc.d/init.d. See
if you can understand parts of them. Follow the above procedure to
analyze them. For some additional insight, you might also examine the
file sysvinitfiles in /usr/doc/initscripts-X.XX, which is part of the
"initscripts" documentation.
For those scripts needing a single do-it-all tool, a Swiss army knife,
there is Perl. Perl combines the capabilities of sed, awk, and throws
in a large subset of C, to boot. It is modular and contains support
for everything ranging from object oriented programming up to and
including the kitchen sink. Short Perl scripts can be effectively
embedded in shell scripts, and there may even be some substance to the
claim that Perl can totally replace shell scripting.
Example 3-61. Perl embedded in a bash script
#!/bin/bash
perl -e 'print "This is an embedded Perl script\n"'
# Some shell commands may follow.
exit 0
_________________________________________________________________
3.12. Backticks (`...`)
Command substitution
Commands within backticks generate command line text.
The output of commands within backticks can be used as
arguments to another command or to load a variable.
rm `cat filename`
# "filename" contains a list of files to delete.
textfile_listing=`ls *.txt`
# Variable contains names of all *.txt files in current working directory.
echo $textfile_listing
Incrementing / decrementing variables (commonly used with expr)
z=`expr $z + 3`
Note that this particular use of backticks has been superseded
by double parentheses $((...)) or the very convenient let
construction.
z=$(($z+3))
let z=z+3
let "z += 3" #If quotes, then spaces and special operators allowed.
All these are equivalent. You may use whichever one "rings your
chimes".
_________________________________________________________________
3.13. I/O Redirection
There are always three default "files" open, stdin (the keyboard),
stdout (the screen), and stderr (error messages output to the screen).
These, and any other open files, can be redirected. Redirection simply
means capturing the output of a file, command, program, or script and
sending it as input to another file, command, program, or script.
Each open file gets assigned a file descriptor. [163][2] The file
descriptors for stdin, stdout, and stderr are 0, 1, and 2,
respectively. Opening additional files assigns descriptors 3 to 9. It
is sometimes useful to assign one of these additional file descriptors
to stdout or stderr as a temporary duplicate copy. This simplifies
restoration to normal after complex redirection and reshuffling.
>
# Redirect stdout to a file.
# Creates the file if not present, otherwise overwrites it.
ls -lR > dir-tree.list
# Creates a file containing a listing of the directory tree.
>>
# Redirect stdout to a file.
# Creates the file if not present, otherwise appends to it.
2> &1
# Redirects stderr to stdout.
# Has the effect of making visible error messages that might otherwise no
t be seen.
i> &j
# Redirects file descriptor i to j
# All output of file pointed to by i gets sent to file pointed to by j
<
# Accept input from a file.
# Companion command to ">", and often used in combination with it.
grep search-word <filename
|
# Pipe.
# General purpose process and command chaining tool.
# Similar to ">", but more general in effect.
# Useful for chaining commands, scripts, files, and programs together.
cat *.txt | sort | uniq > result-file
# Sorts the output of all the .txt files and deletes duplicate lines,
# finally saves results to "result-file".
Note: Multiple instances of input and output redirection and/or
pipes can be combined in a single command line.
command < input-file > output-file
command1 | command2 | command3 > output-file
n<&-
close input file descriptor n
<&-
close stdin
n>&-
close output file descriptor n
>&-
close stdout
_________________________________________________________________
3.14. Recess Time
This bizarre little intermission gives the reader a chance to relax
and maybe laugh a bit.
Fellow Linux user, greetings! You are reading a something which will
bring you luck and good fortune. Just e-mail a copy of this document
to 10 of your friends. Before you make the copies, send a 100-line
Bash script to the first person on the list given at the bottom of
this letter. Then delete their name and add yours to the bottom of the
list.
Don't break the chain! Make the copies within 48 hours. Wilfred P. of
Brooklyn failed to send out his ten copies and woke the next morning
to find his job description changed to "COBOL programmer." Howard L.
of Newport News sent out his ten copies and within a month had enough
hardware to build a 100-node Beowulf cluster dedicated to playing
xbill. Amelia V. of Chicago laughed at this letter and broke the
chain. Shortly thereafter, a fire broke out in her terminal and she
now spends her days writing documentation for MS Windows.
Don't break the chain! Send out your ten copies today!
--Courtesy 'NIX "fortune cookies", with some alterations and many
apologies
_________________________________________________________________
3.15. Regular Expressions
In order to fully utilize the power of shell scripting, you need to
master regular expressions.
_________________________________________________________________
3.15.1. A Brief Introduction to Regular Expressions
An expression is a set of characters that has an interpretation above
and beyond its literal meaning. A quote symbol ("), for example, may
denote speech by a person, ditto, or a meta-meaning for the symbols
that follow. Regular expressions are sets of characters that UNIX
endows with special features.
The main uses for regular expressions (REs) are text searches and
string manipulation. An RE matches a single character or a set of
characters.
* The asterisk * matches any number of characters, including zero.
* The dot . matches any one character, except a newline.
* The question mark ? matches zero or one of the previous RE. It is
generally used for matching single characters.
* The plus + matches one or more of the previous RE. It serves a
role similar to the *, but does not match zero occurrences.
* The caret ^ matches the beginning of a line, but sometimes,
depending on context, negates the meaning of a set of characters
in an RE.
* The dollar sign $ at the end of a an RE matches the end of a line.
* Brackets [...] enclose a set of characters to match in a single
RE.
[xyz] matches the characters x, y, or z.
[c-n] matches any of the characters in the range c to n.
[^b-d] matches all characters except those in the range b to d.
This is an instance of ^ negating or inverting the meaning of the
following RE (taking on a role similar to ! in a different
context).
* The backslash \ escapes a special character, which means that
character gets interpreted literally.
A \$ reverts back to its literal meaning of "dollar sign", rather
than its RE meaning of end-of-line.
* Escaped "curly brackets" \{ \} indicate the number of occurrences
of a preceding RE to match.
It is necessary to escape the curly brackets since they have a
different special character meaning otherwise.
[0-9]\{5\} matches exactly five digits (characters in the range of
0 to 9).
Note: Curly brackets are not available as an RE in awk.
"Sed & Awk", by Dougherty and Robbins (see [164]Bibliography) gives a
very complete and lucid treatment of REs.
_________________________________________________________________
3.15.2. Using REs in scripts
Sed, awk, and Perl, used as filters in scripts, take REs as arguments
when "sifting" or transforming files or I/O streams.
_________________________________________________________________
3.16. Subshells
Running a shell script launches another instance of the command
processor. Just as your commands are interpreted at the command line
prompt, similarly does a script batch process a list of commands in a
file. Each shell script running is, in effect, a subprocess of the
parent shell, the one that gives you the prompt at the console or in
an xterm window.
A shell script can also launch subprocesses. These subshells let the
script do parallel processing, in effect executing multiple subtasks
simultaneously.
* ( command1; command2; command3; ... )
A command list embedded between parentheses runs as a subshell.
Note: Variables in a subshell are not visible outside the block of
code in the subshell. These are, in effect, local variables.
Example 3-62. Variable scope in a subshell
#!/bin/bash
echo
outer_variable=Outer
(
inner_variable=Inner
echo "From subshell, \"inner_variable\" = $inner_variable"
echo "From subshell, \"outer\" = $outer_variable"
)
echo
if [ -z $inner_variable ]
then
echo "inner_variable undefined in main body of shell"
else
echo "inner_variable defined in main body of shell"
fi
echo "From main body of shell, \"inner_variable\" = $inner_variable"
# $inner_variable will show as uninitialized because
# variables defined in a subshell are "local variables".
echo
exit 0
Example 3-63. Running parallel processes in subshells
(cat list1 list2 list3 | sort | uniq > list123)
(cat list4 list5 list6 | sort | uniq > list456)
# Merges and sorts both sets of lists simultaneously.
wait #Don't execute the next command until subshells finish.
diff list123 list456
Note: A command block between curly braces does not launch a
subshell.
{ command1; command2; command3; ... }
_________________________________________________________________
3.17. Process Substitution
Process substitution is the counterpart to command substitution.
Command substitution sets a variable to the result of a command, as in
dir_contents=`ls -al` or xref=$( grep word datafile). Process
substitution feeds the output of a process to another process (in
other words, it sends the results of a command to another command).
* (command)>
<(command)
These initiate process substitution. This uses a named pipe (temp
file) to send the results of the process within parentheses to
another process.
Note: There are no spaces between the parentheses and the "<" or
">". Space there would simply cause redirection from a subshell,
rather than process substitution.
cat <(ls -l)
# Same as ls -l | cat
sort -k 9 <(ls -l /bin) <(ls -l /usr/bin) <(ls -l /usr/X11R6/bin)
# Lists all the files in the 3 main 'bin' directories, and sorts by filen
ame.
# Note that three (count 'em) distinct commands are fed to 'sort'.
_________________________________________________________________
3.18. Functions
Like "real" programming languages, bash has functions, though in a
somewhat limited implementation. A function is a subroutine, a code
block that implements a set of operations, a "black box" that performs
a specified task. Whenever there is repetitive code, when a task
repeats with only slight variations, then writing a function should be
investigated.
function function-name {
command...
}
or
function-name () {
command...
}
This second form will cheer the hearts of C programmers.
The opening bracket in the function may optionally be placed on the
second line, to more nearly resemble C function syntax.
function-name ()
{
command...
}
Functions are called, triggered, simply by invoking their names.
Note that the function definition must precede the first call to it.
There is no method of "declaring" the function, as, for example, in C.
Example 3-64. Simple function
#!/bin/bash
funky ()
{
echo This is a funky function.
echo Now exiting funky function.
}
# Note: function must precede call.
# Now, call the function.
funky
exit 0
More complex functions may have arguments passed to them and return
exit values to the script for further processing.
function-name $arg1 $arg2
The function refers to the passed arguments by position (as if they
were positional parameters), that is, $1, $2, and so forth.
Example 3-65. Function Taking Parameters
#!/bin/bash
func2 () {
if [ -z $1 ]
# Checks if any params.
then
echo "No parameters passed to function."
return 0
else
echo "Param #1 is $1."
fi
if [ $2 ]
then
echo "Parameter #2 is $2."
fi
}
func2
# Called with no params
echo
func2 first
# Called with one param
echo
func2 first second
# Called with two params
echo
exit 0
Note: In contrast to certain other programming languages, shell
scripts permit passing only value parameters to functions. Variable
names (which are actually pointers), if passed as parameters to
functions, will be treated as string literals and cannot be
dereferenced. Functions interpret their arguments literally.
exit status
Functions return a value, called an exit status. The exit
status may be explicitly specified by a return statement,
otherwise it is the exit status of the last command in the
function (0 if successful, and a non-zero error code if not).
This exit status may be used in the script by referencing it as
$?.
return
Terminates a function. The return statement optionally takes an
integer argument, which is returned to the calling script as
the "exit status" of the function, and this exit status is
assigned to the variable $?.
Example 3-66. Converting numbers to Roman numerals
#!/bin/bash
# Arabic number to Roman numeral conversion
# Range 0 - 200
# It's crude, but it works.
# Extending the range and otherwise improving the script
# is left as an exercise for the reader.
# Usage: roman number-to-convert
ARG_ERR=1
OUT_OF_RANGE=200
if [ -z $1 ]
then
echo "Usage: `basename $0` number-to-convert"
exit $ARG_ERR
fi
num=$1
if [ $num -gt $OUT_OF_RANGE ]
then
echo "Out of range!"
exit $OUT_OF_RANGE
fi
to_roman ()
{
number=$1
factor=$2
rchar=$3
let "remainder = number - factor"
while [ $remainder -ge 0 ]
do
echo -n $rchar
let "number -= factor"
let "remainder = number - factor"
done
return $number
}
# Note: must declare function
# before first call to it.
to_roman $num 100 C
num=$?
to_roman $num 90 LXXXX
num=$?
to_roman $num 50 L
num=$?
to_roman $num 40 XL
num=$?
to_roman $num 10 X
num=$?
to_roman $num 9 IX
num=$?
to_roman $num 5 V
num=$?
to_roman $num 4 IV
num=$?
to_roman $num 1 I
echo
exit 0
local variables
A variable declared as local is one that is visible only within
the block of code in which it appears. In a shell script, this
means the variable has meaning only within its own function.
Example 3-67. Local variable visibility
#!/bin/bash
func ()
{
local a=23
echo
echo "a in function is $a"
echo
}
func
# Now, see if local 'a'
# exists outside function.
echo "a outside function is $a"
echo
# Nope, 'a' not visible globally.
exit 0
Local variables permit recursion (a recursive function is one
that calls itself), but this practice usually involves much
computational overhead and is definitely not recommended in a
shell script.
Example 3-68. Recursion, using a local variable
#!/bin/bash
# factorial
# ---------
# Does bash permit recursion?
# Well, yes, but...
# You gotta have rocks in your head to try it.
MAX_ARG=5
WRONG_ARGS=1
RANGE_ERR=2
if [ -z $1 ]
then
echo "Usage: `basename $0` number"
exit $WRONG_ARGS
fi
if [ $1 -gt $MAX_ARG ]
then
echo "Out of range (5 is maximum)."
# Let's get real now...
# If you want greater range than this, rewrite it in a real programming langu
age.
exit $RANGE_ERR
fi
fact ()
{
local number=$1
# Variable "number" must be declared as local otherwise this doesn't work.
if [ $number -eq 0 ]
then
factorial=1
else
let "decrnum = number - 1"
fact $decrnum # Recursive function call.
let "factorial = $number * $?"
fi
return $factorial
}
fact $1
echo "Factorial of $1 is $?."
exit 0
_________________________________________________________________
3.19. List Constructs
The "and list" and "or list" constructs provide a means of processing
a number of commands consecutively. These can effectively replace
complex nested if/then or even case statements. Note that the exit
status of an "and list" or an "or list" is the exit status of the last
command executed.
and list
command-1 && command-2 && command-3 && ... command-n
Each command executes in turn provided that the previous
command has given a return value of true. At the first false
return, the command chain terminates (the first command
returning false is the last one to execute).
Example 3-69. Using an "and list" to test for command-line arguments
#!/bin/bash
# "and list"
if [ ! -z $1 ] && echo "Argument #1 = $1" && [ ! -z $2 ] && echo "Argument #2 =
$2"
then
echo "At least 2 arguments to script."
# All the chained commands return true.
else
echo "Less than 2 arguments to script."
# At least one of the chained commands returns false.
fi
# Note that "if [ ! -z $1 ]" works, but its supposed equivalent,
# "if [ -n $1 ]" does not. This is a bug, not a feature.
# This accomplishes the same thing, coded using "pure" if/then statements.
if [ ! -z $1 ]
then
echo "Argument #1 = $1"
fi
if [ ! -z $2 ]
then
echo "Argument #2 = $2"
echo "At least 2 arguments to script."
else
echo "Less than 2 arguments to script."
fi
# It's longer and less elegant than using an "and list".
exit 0
or list
command-1 || command-2 || command-3 || ... command-n
Each command executes in turn for as long as the previous
command returns false. At the first true return, the command
chain terminates (the first command returning true is the last
one to execute). This is obviously the inverse of the "and
list".
Example 3-70. Using "or lists" in combination with an "and list"
#!/bin/bash
# "Delete", not-so-cunning file deletion utility.
# Usage: delete filename
if [ -z $1 ]
then
file=nothing
else
file=$1
fi
# Fetch file name (or "nothing") for deletion message.
[ ! -f $1 ] && echo "$1 not found. Can't delete a nonexistent file."
# AND LIST, to give error message if file not present.
[ ! -f $1 ] || ( rm -f $1; echo "$file deleted." )
# OR LIST, to delete file if present.
# ( command1 ; command2 ) is, in effect, an AND LIST variant.
# Note logic inversion above.
# AND LIST executes on true, OR LIST on false.
[ ! -z $1 ] || echo "Usage: `basename $0` filename"
# OR LIST, to give error message if no command line arg (file name).
exit 0
Clever combinations of "and" and "or" lists are possible, but the
logic may easily become convoluted and require extensive debugging.
_________________________________________________________________
3.20. Arrays
Newer versions of bash support one-dimensional arrays. Arrays may be
declared with the variable[xx] notation or explicitly by a declare -a
variable statement. To dereference (find the contents of) an array
variable, use curly bracket notation, that is, ${variable[xx]}.
Example 3-71. Simple array usage
#!/bin/bash
area[11]=23
area[13]=37
area[51]=UFOs
# Note that array members need not be consecutive
# or contiguous.
# Some members of the array can be left uninitialized.
# Gaps in the array are o.k.
echo -n "area[11] = "
echo ${area[11]}
echo -n "area[13] = "
echo ${area[13]}
# Note that {curly brackets} needed
echo "Contents of area[51] are ${area[51]}."
# Contents of uninitialized array variable print blank.
echo -n "area[43] = "
echo ${area[43]}
echo "(area[43] unassigned)"
echo
# Sum of two array variables assigned to third
area[5]=`expr ${area[11]} + ${area[13]}`
echo "area[5] = area[11] + area[13]"
echo -n "area[5] = "
echo ${area[5]}
area[6]=`expr ${area[11]} + ${area[51]}`
echo "area[6] = area[11] + area[51]"
echo -n "area[6] = "
echo ${area[6]}
# This doesn't work because
# adding an integer to a string is not permitted.
exit 0
Arrays variables have a syntax all their own, and even standard bash
operators have special options adapted for array use.
Example 3-72. Some special properties of arrays
#!/bin/bash
declare -a colors
# Permits declaring an array without specifying size.
echo "Enter your favorite colors (separated from each other by a space)."
read -a colors
# Special option to 'read' command,
# allowing it to assign elements in an array.
echo
element_count=${#colors[@]} # Special syntax to extract number of elements in
array.
# element_count=${#colors[*]} works also.
index=0
# List all the elements in the array.
while [ $index -lt $element_count ]
do
echo ${colors[$index]}
let "index = $index + 1"
done
# Each array element listed on a separate line.
# If this is not desired, use echo -n "${colors[$index]} "
echo
# Again, list all the elements in the array, but using a more elegant method.
echo ${colors[@]}
# echo ${colors[*]} works also.
echo
exit 0
As seen in the previous example, either ${array_name[@]} or
${array_name[*]} refers to all the elements of the array. Similarly,
to get a count of the number of elements in an array, use either
${#array_name[@]} or ${#array_name[*]}.
--
Arrays permit deploying old familiar algorithms as shell scripts.
Whether this is necessarily a good idea is left to the reader to
decide.
Example 3-73. An old friend: The Bubble Sort
#!/bin/bash
# Bubble sort, of sorts.
# Recall the algorithm for a bubble sort. In this particular version...
# With each successive pass through the array to be sorted,
# compare two adjacent elements, and swap them if out of order.
# At the end of the first pass, the "heaviest" element has sunk to bottom.
# At the end of the second pass, the next "heaviest" one has sunk next to botto
m.
# And so forth.
# This means that each successive pass needs to traverse less of the array.
# You will therefore notice a speeding up in the printing of the later passes.
exchange()
{
# Swaps two members of the array.
local temp=${Countries[$1]} # Temporary storage for element getting swapped o
ut.
Countries[$1]=${Countries[$2]}
Countries[$2]=$temp
return
}
declare -a Countries # Declare array.
Countries=(Netherlands Ukraine Zair Turkey Russia Yemen Syria Brazil Argentina
Nicaragua Japan Mexico Venezuela Greece England Israel Peru Canada Oman Denmark
Wales France Kashmir Qatar Liechtenstein Hungary)
# Couldn't think of one starting with X (darn).
clear # Clear the screen to start with.
echo "0: ${Countries[*]}" # List entire array at pass 0.
number_of_elements=${#Countries[@]}
let "comparisons = $number_of_elements - 1"
count=1 # Pass number.
while [ $comparisons -gt 0 ] # Beginning of outer loop
do
index=0 # Reset index to start of array after each pass.
while [ $index -lt $comparisons ] # Beginning of inner loop
do
if [ ${Countries[$index]} \> ${Countries[`expr $index + 1`]} ]
# If out of order...
# Recalling that \> is ASCII comparison operator.
then
exchange $index `expr $index + 1` # Swap.
fi
let "index += 1"
done # End of inner loop
let "comparisons -= 1"
# Since "heaviest" element bubbles to bottom, we need do one less comparison ea
ch pass.
echo
echo "$count: ${Countries[@]}"
# Print resultant array at end of each pass.
echo
let "count += 1" # Increment pass count.
done # End of outer loop
# All done.
exit 0
--
Arrays enable implementing a shell script version of the Sieve of
Erastosthenes. Of course, a resource-intensive application of this
nature should really be written in a compiled language, such as C. It
runs excruciatingly slowly as a script.
Example 3-74. Complex array application: Sieve of Erastosthenes
#!/bin/bash
# sieve.sh
# Sieve of Erastosthenes
# Ancient algorithm for finding prime numbers.
# This runs a couple of orders of magnitude
# slower than equivalent C program.
LOWER_LIMIT=1
# Starting with 1.
UPPER_LIMIT=1000
# Up to 1000.
# (You may set this higher...
# if you have time on your hands.)
PRIME=1
NON_PRIME=0
let SPLIT=UPPER_LIMIT/2
# Optimization:
# Need to test numbers only
# halfway to upper limit.
declare -a Primes
# Primes[] is an array.
initialize ()
{
# Initialize the array.
i=$LOWER_LIMIT
until [ $i -gt $UPPER_LIMIT ]
do
Primes[i]=$PRIME
let "i += 1"
done
# Assume all array members guilty (prime)
# until proven innocent.
}
print_primes ()
{
# Print out the members of the Primes[] array
# tagged as prime.
i=$LOWER_LIMIT
until [ $i -gt $UPPER_LIMIT ]
do
if [ ${Primes[i]} -eq $PRIME ]
then
printf "%8d" $i
# 8 spaces per number
# gives nice, even columns.
fi
let "i += 1"
done
}
sift ()
{
# Sift out the non-primes.
let i=$LOWER_LIMIT+1
# We know 1 is prime, so
# let's start with 2.
until [ $i -gt $UPPER_LIMIT ]
do
if [ ${Primes[i]} -eq $PRIME ]
# Don't bother sieving numbers
# already sieved (tagged as non-prime).
then
t=$i
while [ $t -le $UPPER_LIMIT ]
do
let "t += $i "
Primes[t]=$NON_PRIME
# Tag as non-prime
# all multiples.
done
fi
let "i += 1"
done
}
# Invoke the functions sequentially.
initialize
sift
print_primes
echo
# This is what they call structured programming.
exit 0
_________________________________________________________________
3.21. Files
* /etc/profile
system-wide defaults (all shells, not just Bash)
* $HOME/.bashrc
user-specific Bash init file, found in each user's home directory
These are the startup files for Bash. They contain the aliases and
environmental variables made available to Bash running as a user shell
and to all Bash scripts invoked after system initialization.
_________________________________________________________________
3.22. Here Documents
A here document is a way of feeding a command script to an interactive
program, such as ftp, telnet, or ex. Typically, it consists of a
command list to the program, delineated by a limit string. The special
symbol << precedes the limit string. This has the same effect as
redirecting the output of a file into the program, that is,
interactive-program < command-file
where command-file contains
command #1
command #2
...
The "here document" alternative looks like this:
#!/bin/bash
interactive-program <<LimitString
command #1
command #2
...
LimitString
Choose a limit string sufficiently unusual that it will not occur
anywhere in the command list and confuse matters.
Note that "here documents" may sometimes be used to good effect with
non-interactive utilities and commands.
Example 3-75. dummyfile: Creates a 2-line dummy file
#!/bin/bash
# Non-interactive use of 'vi' to edit a file.
# Emulates 'sed'.
if [ -z $1 ]
then
echo "Usage: `basename $0` filename"
exit 1
fi
TARGETFILE=$1
vi $TARGETFILE <<x23LimitStringx23
i
This is line 1 of the example file.
This is line 2 of the example file.
^[
ZZ
x23LimitStringx23
# Note that ^[ above is a literal escape
# typed by Control-V Escape
exit 0
The above script could just as effectively have been implemented with
ex, rather than vi. Here documents containing a list of ex commands
are common enough to form their own category, known as ex scripts.
Example 3-76. broadcast: Sends message to everyone logged in
#!/bin/bash
wall <<zzz23EndOfMessagezzz23
Dees ees a message frrom Central Headquarters:
Do not keel moose!
# Other message text goes here.
# Note: Comment lines printed by 'wall'.
zzz23EndOfMessagezzz23
# Could have been done more efficiently by
# wall <message-file
exit 0
Example 3-77. Multi-line message using cat
#!/bin/bash
# 'echo' is fine for printing single line messages,
# but somewhat problematic for for message blocks.
# A 'cat' here document overcomes this limitation.
cat <<End-of-message
-------------------------------------
This is line 1 of the message.
This is line 2 of the message.
This is line 3 of the message.
This is line 4 of the message.
This is the last line of the message.
-------------------------------------
End-of-message
exit 0
Example 3-78. upload: Uploads a file pair to "Sunsite" incoming
directory
#!/bin/bash
# upload
# upload file pair (filename.lsm, filename.tar.gz)
# to incoming directory at Sunsite
if [ -z $1 ]
then
echo "Usage: `basename $0` filename"
exit 1
fi
Filename=`basename $1`
# Strips pathname out of file name
Server="metalab.unc.edu"
Directory="/incoming/Linux"
# These need not be hard-coded into script,
# may instead be changed to command line argument.
Password="your.e-mail.address"
# Change above to suit.
ftp -n $Server <<End-Of-Session
# -n option disables auto-logon
user anonymous $Password
binary
bell
# Ring 'bell' after each file transfer
cd $Directory
put $Filename.lsm
put $Filename.tar.gz
bye
End-Of-Session
exit 0
Note: Some utilities will not work in a "here document". The
pagers, more and less are among these.
For those tasks too complex for a "here document", consider using
the expect scripting language, which is specifically tailored for
feeding input into non-interactive programs.
_________________________________________________________________
3.23. Of Zeros and Nulls
Uses of /dev/null
Think of /dev/null as a "black hole". It is the nearest
equivalent to a write-only file. Everything written to it
disappears forever. Attempts to read or output from it result
in nothing. Nevertheless, /dev/null can be quite useful from
both the command line and in scripts.
Suppressing stdout or stderr (from [165]Example 3-80):
rm $badname 2>/dev/null
# So error messages [stderr] deep-sixed.
Deleting contents of a file, but preserving the file itself,
with all attendant permissions (from [166]Example 2-1 and
[167]Example 2-2):
cat /dev/null > /var/log/messages
cat /dev/null > /var/log/wtmp
Automatically emptying the contents of a log file (especially
good for dealing with those nasty "cookies" sent by Web
commercial sites):
rm -f ~/.netscape/cookies
ln -s /dev/null ~/.netscape/cookies
# All cookies now get sent to a black hole, rather than saved to disk.
Uses of /dev/zero
Like /dev/null, /dev/zero is a pseudo file, but it actually
contains nulls (numerical zeros, not the ASCII kind). Output
written to it disappears, and it is fairly difficult to
actually read the nulls in /dev/zero, though it can be done
with od or a hex editor. The chief use for /dev/zero is in
creating an initialized dummy file of specified length intended
as a temporary swap file.
Example 3-79. Setting up a swapfile using /dev/zero
#!/bin/bash
# Creating a swapfile.
# This script must be run as root.
FILE=/swap
BLOCKSIZE=1024
PARAM_ERROR=33
SUCCESS=0
if [ -z $1 ]
then
echo "Usage: `basename $0` swapfile-size"
# Must be at least 40 blocks.
exit $PARAM_ERROR
fi
dd if=/dev/zero of=$FILE bs=$BLOCKSIZE count=$1
echo "Creating swapfile of size $1 blocks (KB)."
mkswap $FILE $1
swapon $FILE
echo "Swapfile activated."
exit $SUCCESS
_________________________________________________________________
3.24. Debugging
The Bash shell contains no debugger, nor even any debugging-specific
commands or constructs. Syntax errors or outright typos in the script
generate cryptic error messages that are often of no help in debugging
a non-functional script.
Example 3-80. test23, a buggy script
#!/bin/bash
a=37
if [$a -gt 27 ]
then
echo $a
fi
exit 0
Output from script:
./test23: [37: command not found
What's wrong with the above script (hint: after the if)?
What if the script executes, but does not work as expected? This is
the all too familiar logic error.
Example 3-81. test24, another buggy script
#!/bin/bash
# This is supposed to delete all filenames
# containing embedded spaces in current directory,
# but doesn't. Why not?
badname=`ls | grep ' '`
# echo "$badname"
rm "$badname"
exit 0
To find out what's wrong with [168]Example 3-81, uncomment the echo
"$badname" line. Echo statements are useful for seeing whether what
you expect is actually what you get.
Summarizing the symptoms of a buggy script,
1. It bombs with an error message syntax error, or
2. It runs, but does not work as expected (logic error)
3. It runs, works as expected, but has nasty side effects (logic
bomb).
Tools for debugging non-working scripts include
1. echo statements at critical points in the script to trace the
variables, and otherwise give a snapshot of what is going on.
2. using the tee filter to check processes or data flows at critical
points.
3. setting option flags -n -v -x
sh -n scriptname checks for syntax errors without actually running
the script. This is the equivalent of inserting set -n or set -o
noexec into the script. Note that certain types of syntax errors
can slip past this check.
sh -v scriptname echoes each command before executing it. This is
the equivalent of inserting set -v or set -o verbose in the
script.
sh -x scriptname echoes the result each command, but in an
abbreviated manner. This is the equivalent of inserting set -x or
set -o xtrace in the script.
Inserting set -u or set -o nounset in the script runs it, but
gives an unbound variable error message at each attempt to use an
undeclared variable.
4. trapping at exit
The exit command in a script actually sends a signal 0,
terminating the process, that is, the script itself. It is often
useful to trap the exit, forcing a "printout" of variables, for
example. The trap must be the first command in the script.
trap
Specifies an action on receipt of a signal; also useful for
debugging.
Note: A signal is simply a message sent to a process, either by the
kernel or another process, telling it to take some specified action
(usually to terminate). For example, hitting a Control-C, sends a
user interrupt, an INT signal, to a running program.
trap 2 #ignore interrupts (no action specified)
trap 'echo "Control-C disabled."' 2
Example 3-82. Trapping at exit
#!/bin/bash
trap 'echo Variable Listing --- a = $a b = $b' EXIT
# EXIT is the name of the signal generated upon exit from a script.
a=39
b=36
exit 0
# Note that commenting out the 'exit' command makes no difference,
# since the script exits anyhow after running out of commands.
Example 3-83. Cleaning up after Control-C
#!/bin/bash
# logon.sh
# A quick 'n dirty script to check whether you are on-line yet.
TRUE=1
LOGFILE=/var/log/messages
# Note that $LOGFILE must be readable (chmod 644 /var/log/messages).
TEMPFILE=temp.$$
# Create a "unique" temp file name, using process id of the script.
KEYWORD=address
# At logon, the line "remote IP address xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx" appended to /var/log/m
essages.
ONLINE=22
USER_INTERRUPT=13
trap 'rm -f $TEMPFILE; exit $USER_INTERRUPT' TERM INT
# Cleans up the temp file if script interrupted by control-c.
echo
while [ $TRUE ] #Endless loop.
do
tail -1 $LOGFILE> $TEMPFILE
# Saves last line of system log file as temp file.
search=`grep $KEYWORD $TEMPFILE`
# Checks for presence of the "IP address" phrase,
# indicating a successful logon.
if [ ! -z "$search" ] # Quotes necessary because of possible spaces.
then
echo "On-line"
rm -f $TEMPFILE # Clean up temp file.
exit $ONLINE
else
echo -n "." # -n option to echo suppresses newline,
# so you get continuous rows of dots.
fi
sleep 1
done
# Note: if you change the KEYWORD variable to "Exit",
# this script can be used while on-line to check for an unexpected logoff.
# Exercise: Change the script, as per the above note,
# and prettify it.
exit 0
Note: trap '' SIGNAL (two adjacent apostrophes) disables SIGNAL for
the remainder of the script. trap SIGNAL restores the functioning
of SIGNAL once more. This is useful to protect a critical portion
of a script from an undesirable interrupt.
trap '' 2 # Signal 2 is Control-C, now disabled.
command
command
command
trap 2 # Reenables Control-C
_________________________________________________________________
3.25. Options
Options are settings that change shell and/or script behavior.
The set command (see [169]Section 3.9) enables options within a
script. At the point in the script where you want the options to take
effect, use set -o option-name or, in short form, set -option-abbrev.
These two forms are equivalent.
#!/bin/bash
set -o verbose
# Echoes all commands before executing.
#!/bin/bash
set -v
# Exact same effect as above.
Note: To disable an option within a script, use set +o option-name
or set +option-abbrev.
#!/bin/bash
set -o verbose
# Command echoing on.
command
...
command
set +o verbose
# Command echoing off.
command
# Not echoed.
set -v
# Command echoing on.
command
...
command
set +v
# Command echoing off.
command
exit 0
An alternate method of enabling script options is to invoke the script
with the option(s) from the command line. Some options are available
only this way. Among these are -i, force script to run interactive,
and -r, restricted.
bash -v script-name
or
bash -o verbose script-name
The following is a listing of some useful options. They may be
specified in either abbreviated form or by complete name.
Table 3-1. bash options
Abbreviation Name Effect
-C noclobber Prevent overwriting of files by redirection (may be
overridden by >|)
-a allexport Export all defined variables
-b notify Notify when jobs running in background terminate (not of
much use in a script)
-f noglob Filename expansion disabled
-p privileged Script runs as "suid" (caution!)
-u nounset Attempt to use undefined variable outputs error message
-v verbose Print each command to stdout before executing it
-x xtrace Similar to -v, but expands commands
-e errexit Abort script at first error (when a command exits with
non-zero status)
-n noexec Read commands in script, but do not execute them
-t (none) Exit after first command
- (none) End of options flag. All other arguments are positional
parameters.
-- (none) Unset positional parameters. If arguments given
(--arg1arg2), positional parameters set to arguments.
_________________________________________________________________
3.26. Gotchas
Assigning reserved words or characters to variable names.
var1=case
# Causes problems.
var2=23skidoo
# Also problems. Variable names starting with a digit are reserved by the shell
.
# Try var2=_23skidoo. Starting variables with an underscore is o.k.
var3=xyz((!*
# Causes even worse problems.
Using a hyphen or other reserved characters in a variable name.
var-1=23
# Use 'var_1' instead.
Using white space inappropriately (in contrast to other programming
languages bash can be finicky about white space).
var1 = 23
# 'var1=23' is correct.
let c = $a - $b
# 'let c=$a-$b' or 'let "c = $a - $b"' are correct.
if [ $a -le 5]
# 'if [ $a -le 5 ]' is correct.
Using uninitialized variables (that is, using variables before a value
is assigned to them). An uninitialized variable has a value of "null",
not zero.
Mixing up = and -eq in a test. Remember, = is for comparing literal
variables and -eq is for numbers.
if [ $a = 273 ] # Wrong!
if [ $a -eq 273 ] # Correct.
Commands issued from a script may fail to execute because the script
owner lacks execute permission for them. If a user cannot invoke a
command from the command line, then putting it into a script will
likewise fail. Try changing the attributes of the command in question,
perhaps setting the suid bit (as root, of course).
Using bash version 2 functionality (see below) in a script headed with
#!/bin/bash may cause a bailout with error messages. Your system may
still have an older version of bash as the default installation. Try
changing the header of the script to #!/bin/bash2.
Making scripts "suid" is generally a bad idea, as it may compromise
system security. Administrative scripts should be run by root, not
regular users.
_________________________________________________________________
3.27. Miscellany
Nobody really knows what the Bourne shell's grammar is. Even
examination of the source code is little help.
--Tom Duff
_________________________________________________________________
3.27.1. Interactive and non-interactive scripts
An interactive script is one that requires input from the user,
usually with read statements (see [170]Example 3-38).
Init and startup scripts are necessarily non-interactive, since they
must run without human intervention. Many administrative and system
maintenance scripts are likewise non-interactive. Unvarying repetitive
tasks may usually be automated by non-interactive scripts.
Non-interactive scripts can run in the background, but interactive
ones hang, waiting for input that never comes. Handle that difficulty
by having an expect script or embedded here document (see [171]Section
3.22) feed input to an interactive script running as a background job.
In the simplest case, redirect a file to supply input to a read
statement (read variable <file). These particular workarounds make
possible general purpose scripts that run in either interactive or
non-interactive modes.
If a script needs to test whether it is running in interactive mode,
it is simply a matter of finding whether the prompt variable, $PS1 is
set. (If the user is being prompted for input, it is, of course,
necessary to display the prompt.)
if [-z $PS1] # no prompt?
then
# non-interactive
...
else
# interactive
...
fi
_________________________________________________________________
3.27.2. Optimizations
Most shell scripts are quick 'n dirty solutions to non-complex
problems. As such, optimizing them for speed is not much of an issue.
Consider the case, though, where a script carries out an important
task, does it well, but runs too slowly. Rewriting it in a compiled
language may not be a palatable option. The simplest fix would be to
rewrite the parts of the script that slow it down. Is it possible to
apply principles of code optimization even to a lowly shell script?
Check the loops in the script. Time consumed by repetitive operations
adds up quickly. Use the time and times tools to profile
computation-intensive commands. Consider rewriting time-critical code
sections in C, or even in assembler.
Try to minimize file i/o. Bash is not particularly efficient at
handling files, so consider using more appropriate tools for this
within the script, such as awk or Perl.
Try to write your scripts in a structured, coherent form, so they can
be reorganized and tightened up as necessary. Some of the optimization
techniques applicable to high-level languages may work for scripts,
but others, such as loop unrolling, are mostly irrelevant. Above all,
use common sense.
_________________________________________________________________
3.27.3. Assorted Tips
* To keep a record of which user scripts have run during a
particular sesssion or over a number of sessions, add the
following lines to each script you want to keep track of. This
will keep a continuing file record of the script names and
invocation times.
# Append (>>) following to end of save file.
date>> $SAVE_FILE #Date and time.
echo $0>> $SAVE_FILE #Script name.
echo>> $SAVE_FILE #Blank line as separator.
# Of course, SAVE_FILE defined and exported as environmental variable in ~/.bas
hrc
# (something like ~/.scripts-run)
_________________________________________________________________
3.28. Bash, version 2
The current version of bash, the one you have running on your machine,
is actually version 2. This update of the classic bash scripting
language added array variables, string and parameter expansion, and a
better method of indirect variable references, among other features.
Example 3-84. String expansion
#!/bin/bash
# String expansion.
# Introduced in version 2 of bash.
# Strings of the form $'xxx'
# have the standard escaped characters interpreted.
echo $'Ringing bell 3 times \a \a \a'
echo $'Three form feeds \f \f \f'
echo $'10 newlines \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n'
exit 0
Example 3-85. Indirect variable references - the new way
#!/bin/bash
# Indirect variable referencing.
# This has a few of the attributes of references in C++.
a=letter_of_alphabet
letter_of_alphabet=z
# Direct reference.
echo "a = $a"
# Indirect reference.
echo "Now a = ${!a}"
# The ${!variable} notation is greatly superior to the old "eval var1=\$$var2"
echo
t=table_cell_3
table_cell_3=24
echo "t = ${!t}"
table_cell_3=387
echo "Value of t changed to ${!t}"
# Useful for referencing members
# of an array or table,
# or for simulating a multi-dimensional array.
# An indexing option would have been nice (sigh).
exit 0
Example 3-86. Using arrays and other miscellaneous trickery to deal
four random hands from a deck of cards
#!/bin/bash2
# Must specify version 2 of bash, else might not work.
# Cards:
# deals four random hands from a deck of cards.
UNPICKED=0
PICKED=1
DUPE_CARD=99
LOWER_LIMIT=0
UPPER_LIMIT=51
CARDS_IN_SUITE=13
CARDS=52
declare -a Deck
declare -a Suites
declare -a Cards
# It would have been easier and more intuitive
# with a single, 3-dimensional array. Maybe
# a future version of bash will support
# multidimensional arrays.
initialize_Deck ()
{
i=$LOWER_LIMIT
until [ $i -gt $UPPER_LIMIT ]
do
Deck[i]=$UNPICKED
let "i += 1"
done
# Set each card of "Deck" as unpicked.
echo
}
initialize_Suites ()
{
Suites[0]=C #Clubs
Suites[1]=D #Diamonds
Suites[2]=H #Hearts
Suites[3]=S #Spades
}
initialize_Cards ()
{
Cards=(2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 J Q K A)
# Alternate method of initializing array.
}
pick_a_card ()
{
card_number=$RANDOM
let "card_number %= $CARDS"
if [ ${Deck[card_number]} -eq $UNPICKED ]
then
Deck[card_number]=$PICKED
return $card_number
else
return $DUPE_CARD
fi
}
parse_card ()
{
number=$1
let "suite_number = number / CARDS_IN_SUITE"
suite=${Suites[suite_number]}
echo -n "$suite-"
let "card_no = number % CARDS_IN_SUITE"
Card=${Cards[card_no]}
printf %-4s $Card
# Print cards in neat columns.
}
seed_random ()
{
# Seed random number generator.
seed=`eval date +%s`
let "seed %= 32766"
RANDOM=$seed
}
deal_cards ()
{
echo
cards_picked=0
while [ $cards_picked -le $UPPER_LIMIT ]
do
pick_a_card
t=$?
if [ $t -ne $DUPE_CARD ]
then
parse_card $t
u=$cards_picked+1
# Change back to 1-based indexing (temporarily).
let "u %= $CARDS_IN_SUITE"
if [ $u -eq 0 ]
then
echo
echo
fi
# Separate hands.
let "cards_picked += 1"
fi
done
echo
return 0
}
# Structured programming:
# entire program logic modularized in functions.
#================
seed_random
initialize_Deck
initialize_Suites
initialize_Cards
deal_cards
exit 0
#================
# Exercise 1:
# Add comments to thoroughly document this script.
# Exercise 2:
# Revise the script to print out each hand sorted in suites.
# You may add other bells and whistles if you like.
# Exercise 3:
# Simplify and streamline the logic of the script.
_________________________________________________________________
Chapter 4. Credits
[172]Philippe Martin translated this document into DocBook/SGML. While
not on the job at a small French company as a software developer, he
enjoys working on GNU/Linux documentation and software, reading
literature, playing music, and for his peace of mind making merry with
friends. You may run across him somewhere in France or in the Basque
Country, or email him at [173]feloy@free.fr.
I would like to especially thank Patrick Callahan, Mike Novak, and Pal
Domokos for catching bugs, pointing out ambiguities, and for
suggesting clarifications and changes. Their lively discussion of
shell scripting and general documentation issues inspired me to try to
make this HOWTO more readable.
Others making helpful suggestions were Gabor Kiss and Leopold Toetsch.
_________________________________________________________________
Bibliography
Dale Dougherty and Arnold Robbins, Sed and Awk, 2nd edition, O'Reilly
and Associates, 1997, 1-156592-225-5.
To unfold the full power of shell scripting, you need at least a
passing familiarity with sed and awk. This is the standard tutorial.
It includes an excellent introduction to "regular expressions". Read
this book.
*
Aeleen Frisch, Essential System Administration, 2nd edition, O'Reilly
and Associates, 1995, 1-56592-127-5.
This excellent sys admin manual has a decent introduction to shell
scripting for sys administrators and does a nice job of explaining the
startup and initialization scripts. The book is long overdue for a
third edition (are you listening, Tim O'Reilly?).
*
Stephen Kochan and Patrick Woods, Unix Shell Programming, Hayden,
1990, 067248448X.
The standard reference, though a bit dated by now.
*
Cameron Newham and Bill Rosenblatt, Learning the Bash Shell, 2nd
edition, O'Reilly and Associates, 1998, 1-56592-347-2.
This is a valiant effort at a decent shell primer, but somewhat
deficient in coverage on programming topics and lacking sufficient
examples.
*
Anatole Olczak, Bourne Shell Quick Reference Guide, ASP, Inc., 1991,
093573922X.
A very handy pocket reference, despite lacking coverage of
Bash-specific features.
*
Jerry Peek, Tim O'Reilly, and Mike Loukides, Unix Power Tools, 2nd
edition, O'Reilly and Associates, Random House, 1997, 1-56592-260-3.
Contains a couple of sections of very informative in-depth articles on
shell programming, but falls short of being a tutorial. It reproduces
much of the regular expressions tutorial from the Dougherty and
Robbins book, above.
*
Ellen Siever, Linux in a Nutshell, 2nd edition, O'Reilly and
Associates, 1999, 1-56592-585-8.
The all-around best Linux command reference, even has a Bash section.
*
The O'Reilly books on Perl. (Actually, any O'Reilly books.)
The man pages for bash and bash2, date, expect, expr, find, grep,
gzip, ln, patch, tar, tr, xargs. The texinfo documentation on bash,
dd, gawk, and sed.
The excellent "Bash Reference Manual", by Chet Ramey and Brian Fox,
distributed as part of the "bash-2-doc" package (available as an rpm).
Ben Okopnik's well-written introductory Bash scripting articles in
issues 53, 54, 55, 57, and 58 of the [174]Linux Gazette .
Chet Ramey's [175]Bash F.A.Q.
The [176]sed F.A.Q.
_________________________________________________________________
Appendix A. Contributed Scripts
These scripts, while not fitting into the text of this document, do
illustrate some interesting shell programming techniques. They are
useful, too. Have fun analyzing and running them.
Example A-1. manview: A script for viewing formatted man pages
#!/bin/bash
# Formats the source of a man page for viewing in a user directory.
# This is useful when writing man page source and you want to
# look at the intermediate results on the fly while working on it.
if [ -z $1 ]
then
echo "Usage: `basename $0` [filename]"
exit 1
fi
groff -Tascii -man $1 | less
# From the man page for groff.
exit 0
Example A-2. manview: A script for uploading to an ftp site, using a
locally encrypted password
#!/bin/bash
# Example 3-71 modified to use encrypted password.
if [ -z $1 ]
then
echo "Usage: `basename $0` filename"
exit 1
fi
Username=bozo
# Change to suit.
Filename=`basename $1`
# Strips pathname out of file name
Server="XXX"
Directory="YYY"
# Change above to actual server name & directory.
password=`cruft <pword`
# "pword" is the file containing encrypted password.
# Uses the author's own "cruft" file encryption package,
# based on onetime pad algorithm,
# and obtainable from:
# Primary-site: ftp://metalab.unc.edu /pub/Linux/utils/file
# cruft-0.2.tar.gz [16k]
ftp -n $Server <<End-Of-Session
# -n option disables auto-logon
user $Username $Password
binary
bell
# Ring 'bell' after each file transfer
cd $Directory
put $Filename
bye
End-Of-Session
exit 0
+
The following two scripts are by Mark Moraes of the University of
Toronto. See the enclosed file "Moraes-COPYRIGHT" for permissions and
restrictions.
Example A-3. behead: A script for removing mail and news message
headers
#! /bin/sh
# Strips off the header from a mail/News message i.e. till the first
# empty line
# Mark Moraes, University of Toronto
# --> These comments added by author of HOWTO.
if [ $# -eq 0 ]; then
# --> If no command line args present, then works on file redirected to stdin.
sed -e '1,/^$/d' -e '/^[ ]*$/d'
# --> Delete empty lines and all lines until
# --> first one beginning with white space.
else
# --> If command line args present, then work on files named.
for i do
sed -e '1,/^$/d' -e '/^[ ]*$/d' $i
# --> Ditto, as above.
done
fi
# --> Exercise for the reader: Add error checking and other options.
# -->
# --> Note that the small sed script repeats, except for the arg passed.
# --> Does it make sense to embed it in a function? Why or why not?
Example A-4. ftpget: A script for downloading files via ftp
#! /bin/sh
# $Id: ftpget,v 1.2 91/05/07 21:15:43 moraes Exp $
# Script to perform batch anonymous ftp. Essentially converts a list of
# of command line arguments into input to ftp.
# Simple, and quick - written as a companion to ftplist
# -h specifies the remote host (default prep.ai.mit.edu)
# -d specifies the remote directory to cd to - you can provide a sequence
# of -d options - they will be cd'ed to in turn. If the paths are relative,
# make sure you get the sequence right. Be careful with relative paths -
# there are far too many symlinks nowadays.
# (default is the ftp login directory)
# -v turns on the verbose option of ftp, and shows all responses from the
# ftp server.
# -f remotefile[:localfile] gets the remote file into localfile
# -m pattern does an mget with the specified pattern. Remember to quote
# shell characters.
# -c does a local cd to the specified directory
# For example,
# ftpget -h expo.lcs.mit.edu -d contrib -f xplaces.shar:xplaces.sh \
# -d ../pub/R3/fixes -c ~/fixes -m 'fix*'
# will get xplaces.shar from ~ftp/contrib on expo.lcs.mit.edu, and put it in
# xplaces.sh in the current working directory, and get all fixes from
# ~ftp/pub/R3/fixes and put them in the ~/fixes directory.
# Obviously, the sequence of the options is important, since the equivalent
# commands are executed by ftp in corresponding order
#
# Mark Moraes (moraes@csri.toronto.edu), Feb 1, 1989
# --> Angle brackets changed to parens, so Docbook won't get indigestion.
#
# --> These comments added by author of HOWTO.
# PATH=/local/bin:/usr/ucb:/usr/bin:/bin
# export PATH
# --> Above 2 lines from original script probably superfluous.
TMPFILE=/tmp/ftp.$$
# --> Creates temp file, using process id of script ($$)
# --> to construct filename.
SITE=`domainname`.toronto.edu
# --> 'domainname' similar to 'hostname'
# --> May rewrite this to parameterize this for general use.
usage="Usage: $0 [-h remotehost] [-d remotedirectory]... [-f remfile:localfile]
... \
[-c localdirectory] [-m filepattern] [-v]"
ftpflags="-i -n"
verbflag=
set -f # So we can use globbing in -m
set x `getopt vh:d:c:m:f: $*`
if [ $? != 0 ]; then
echo $usage
exit 1
fi
shift
trap 'rm -f ${TMPFILE} ; exit' 0 1 2 3 15
echo "user anonymous ${USER-gnu}@${SITE} > ${TMPFILE}"
# --> Added quotes (recommended in complex echoes).
echo binary >> ${TMPFILE}
for i in $*
# --> Parse command line args.
do
case $i in
-v) verbflag=-v; echo hash >> ${TMPFILE}; shift;;
-h) remhost=$2; shift 2;;
-d) echo cd $2 >> ${TMPFILE};
if [ x${verbflag} != x ]; then
echo pwd >> ${TMPFILE};
fi;
shift 2;;
-c) echo lcd $2 >> ${TMPFILE}; shift 2;;
-m) echo mget "$2" >> ${TMPFILE}; shift 2;;
-f) f1=`expr "$2" : "\([^:]*\).*"`; f2=`expr "$2" : "[^:]*:\(.*\)"`;
echo get ${f1} ${f2} >> ${TMPFILE}; shift 2;;
--) shift; break;;
esac
done
if [ $# -ne 0 ]; then
echo $usage
exit 2
fi
if [ x${verbflag} != x ]; then
ftpflags="${ftpflags} -v"
fi
if [ x${remhost} = x ]; then
remhost=prep.ai.mit.edu
# --> Rewrite to match your favorite ftp site.
fi
echo quit >> ${TMPFILE}
# --> All commands saved in tempfile.
ftp ${ftpflags} ${remhost} < ${TMPFILE}
# --> Now, tempfile batch processed by ftp.
rm -f ${TMPFILE}
# --> Finally, tempfile deleted (you may wish to copy it to a logfile).
# --> Exercises for reader:
# --> 1) Add error checking.
# --> 2) Add bells & whistles.
_________________________________________________________________
Appendix B. Copyright
The "Advanced Bash-Scripting HOWTO" is copyright, (c) 2000, by Mendel
Cooper. This document may only be distributed subject to the terms and
conditions set forth in the [177]LDP License.
If this document is incorporated into a printed book, the author
requests a courtesy copy. This is a request, not a requirement.
Notes
[178][1]
A flag is an argument that acts as a signal, switching script
behaviors on or off.
[179][2]
A file descriptor is simply a number that the operating system assigns
to an open file to keep track of it. Consider it a simplified version
of a file pointer. It is analogous to a file handle in C.
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